// Written in the D programming language.

/**
A one-stop shop for converting values from one type to another.

$(SCRIPT inhibitQuickIndex = 1;)
$(BOOKTABLE,
$(TR $(TH Category) $(TH Functions))
$(TR $(TD Generic) $(TD
        $(LREF castFrom)
        $(LREF emplace)
        $(LREF parse)
        $(LREF to)
        $(LREF toChars)
))
$(TR $(TD Strings) $(TD
        $(LREF text)
        $(LREF wtext)
        $(LREF dtext)
        $(LREF hexString)
))
$(TR $(TD Numeric) $(TD
        $(LREF octal)
        $(LREF roundTo)
        $(LREF signed)
        $(LREF unsigned)
))
$(TR $(TD Exceptions) $(TD
        $(LREF ConvException)
        $(LREF ConvOverflowException)
))
)

Copyright: Copyright Digital Mars 2007-.

License:   $(HTTP boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt, Boost License 1.0).

Authors:   $(HTTP digitalmars.com, Walter Bright),
           $(HTTP erdani.org, Andrei Alexandrescu),
           Shin Fujishiro,
           Adam D. Ruppe,
           Kenji Hara

Source:    $(PHOBOSSRC std/_conv.d)

*/
module std.conv;

public import std.ascii : LetterCase;

import std.meta;
import std.range.primitives;
import std.traits;

// Same as std.string.format, but "self-importing".
// Helps reduce code and imports, particularly in static asserts.
// Also helps with missing imports errors.
package template convFormat()
{
    import std.format : format;
    alias convFormat = format;
}

/* ************* Exceptions *************** */

/**
 * Thrown on conversion errors.
 */
class ConvException : Exception
{
    import std.exception : basicExceptionCtors;
    ///
    mixin basicExceptionCtors;
}

private string convError_unexpected(S)(S source)
{
    return source.empty ? "end of input" : text("'", source.front, "'");
}

private auto convError(S, T)(S source, string fn = __FILE__, size_t ln = __LINE__)
{
    return new ConvException(
        text("Unexpected ", convError_unexpected(source),
             " when converting from type "~S.stringof~" to type "~T.stringof),
        fn, ln);
}

private auto convError(S, T)(S source, int radix, string fn = __FILE__, size_t ln = __LINE__)
{
    return new ConvException(
        text("Unexpected ", convError_unexpected(source),
             " when converting from type "~S.stringof~" base ", radix,
             " to type "~T.stringof),
        fn, ln);
}

@safe pure/* nothrow*/  // lazy parameter bug
private auto parseError(lazy string msg, string fn = __FILE__, size_t ln = __LINE__)
{
    return new ConvException(text("Can't parse string: ", msg), fn, ln);
}

private void parseCheck(alias source)(dchar c, string fn = __FILE__, size_t ln = __LINE__)
{
    if (source.empty)
        throw parseError(text("unexpected end of input when expecting", "\"", c, "\""));
    if (source.front != c)
        throw parseError(text("\"", c, "\" is missing"), fn, ln);
    source.popFront();
}

private
{
    T toStr(T, S)(S src)
    if (isSomeString!T)
    {
        // workaround for Bugzilla 14198
        static if (is(S == bool) && is(typeof({ T s = "string"; })))
        {
            return src ? "true" : "false";
        }
        else
        {
            import std.format : FormatSpec, formatValue;
            import std.array : appender;

            auto w = appender!T();
            FormatSpec!(ElementEncodingType!T) f;
            formatValue(w, src, f);
            return w.data;
        }
    }

    template isExactSomeString(T)
    {
        enum isExactSomeString = isSomeString!T && !is(T == enum);
    }

    template isEnumStrToStr(S, T)
    {
        enum isEnumStrToStr = isImplicitlyConvertible!(S, T) &&
                              is(S == enum) && isExactSomeString!T;
    }
    template isNullToStr(S, T)
    {
        enum isNullToStr = isImplicitlyConvertible!(S, T) &&
                           (is(Unqual!S == typeof(null))) && isExactSomeString!T;
    }
}

/**
 * Thrown on conversion overflow errors.
 */
class ConvOverflowException : ConvException
{
    @safe pure nothrow
    this(string s, string fn = __FILE__, size_t ln = __LINE__)
    {
        super(s, fn, ln);
    }
}

/**
The `to` template converts a value from one type _to another.
The source type is deduced and the target type must be specified, for example the
expression `to!int(42.0)` converts the number 42 from
`double` _to `int`. The conversion is "safe", i.e.,
it checks for overflow; `to!int(4.2e10)` would throw the
`ConvOverflowException` exception. Overflow checks are only
inserted when necessary, e.g., `to!double(42)` does not do
any checking because any `int` fits in a `double`.

Conversions from string _to numeric types differ from the C equivalents
`atoi()` and `atol()` by checking for overflow and not allowing whitespace.

For conversion of strings _to signed types, the grammar recognized is:
$(PRE $(I Integer): $(I Sign UnsignedInteger)
$(I UnsignedInteger)
$(I Sign):
    $(B +)
    $(B -))

For conversion _to unsigned types, the grammar recognized is:
$(PRE $(I UnsignedInteger):
    $(I DecimalDigit)
    $(I DecimalDigit) $(I UnsignedInteger))
 */
template to(T)
{
    T to(A...)(A args)
        if (A.length > 0)
    {
        return toImpl!T(args);
    }

    // Fix issue 6175
    T to(S)(ref S arg)
        if (isStaticArray!S)
    {
        return toImpl!T(arg);
    }
}

/**
 * Converting a value _to its own type (useful mostly for generic code)
 * simply returns its argument.
 */
@safe pure unittest
{
    int a = 42;
    int b = to!int(a);
    double c = to!double(3.14); // c is double with value 3.14
}

/**
 * Converting among numeric types is a safe way _to cast them around.
 *
 * Conversions from floating-point types _to integral types allow loss of
 * precision (the fractional part of a floating-point number). The
 * conversion is truncating towards zero, the same way a cast would
 * truncate. (_To round a floating point value when casting _to an
 * integral, use `roundTo`.)
 */
@safe pure unittest
{
    import std.exception : assertThrown;

    int a = 420;
    assert(to!long(a) == a);
    assertThrown!ConvOverflowException(to!byte(a));

    assert(to!int(4.2e6) == 4200000);
    assertThrown!ConvOverflowException(to!uint(-3.14));
    assert(to!uint(3.14) == 3);
    assert(to!uint(3.99) == 3);
    assert(to!int(-3.99) == -3);
}

/**
 * When converting strings _to numeric types, note that the D hexadecimal and binary
 * literals are not handled. Neither the prefixes that indicate the base, nor the
 * horizontal bar used _to separate groups of digits are recognized. This also
 * applies to the suffixes that indicate the type.
 *
 * _To work around this, you can specify a radix for conversions involving numbers.
 */
@safe pure unittest
{
    auto str = to!string(42, 16);
    assert(str == "2A");
    auto i = to!int(str, 16);
    assert(i == 42);
}

/**
 * Conversions from integral types _to floating-point types always
 * succeed, but might lose accuracy. The largest integers with a
 * predecessor representable in floating-point format are `2^24-1` for
 * `float`, `2^53-1` for `double`, and `2^64-1` for `real` (when
 * `real` is 80-bit, e.g. on Intel machines).
 */
@safe pure unittest
{
    // 2^24 - 1, largest proper integer representable as float
    int a = 16_777_215;
    assert(to!int(to!float(a)) == a);
    assert(to!int(to!float(-a)) == -a);
}

/**
 * Converting an array _to another array type works by converting each
 * element in turn. Associative arrays can be converted _to associative
 * arrays as long as keys and values can in turn be converted.
 */
@safe pure unittest
{
    import std.string : split;

    int[] a = [1, 2, 3];
    auto b = to!(float[])(a);
    assert(b == [1.0f, 2, 3]);
    string str = "1 2 3 4 5 6";
    auto numbers = to!(double[])(split(str));
    assert(numbers == [1.0, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]);
    int[string] c;
    c["a"] = 1;
    c["b"] = 2;
    auto d = to!(double[wstring])(c);
    assert(d["a"w] == 1 && d["b"w] == 2);
}

/**
 * Conversions operate transitively, meaning that they work on arrays and
 * associative arrays of any complexity.
 *
 * This conversion works because `to!short` applies _to an `int`, `to!wstring`
 * applies _to a `string`, `to!string` applies _to a `double`, and
 * `to!(double[])` applies _to an `int[]`. The conversion might throw an
 * exception because `to!short` might fail the range check.
 */
@safe unittest
{
    int[string][double[int[]]] a;
    auto b = to!(short[wstring][string[double[]]])(a);
}

/**
 * Object-to-object conversions by dynamic casting throw exception when
 * the source is non-null and the target is null.
 */
@safe pure unittest
{
    import std.exception : assertThrown;
    // Testing object conversions
    class A {}
    class B : A {}
    class C : A {}
    A a1 = new A, a2 = new B, a3 = new C;
    assert(to!B(a2) is a2);
    assert(to!C(a3) is a3);
    assertThrown!ConvException(to!B(a3));
}

/**
 * Stringize conversion from all types is supported.
 * $(UL
 *   $(LI String _to string conversion works for any two string types having
 *        ($(D char), $(D wchar), $(D dchar)) character widths and any
 *        combination of qualifiers (mutable, $(D const), or $(D immutable)).)
 *   $(LI Converts array (other than strings) _to string.
 *        Each element is converted by calling $(D to!T).)
 *   $(LI Associative array _to string conversion.
 *        Each element is printed by calling $(D to!T).)
 *   $(LI Object _to string conversion calls $(D toString) against the object or
 *        returns $(D "null") if the object is null.)
 *   $(LI Struct _to string conversion calls $(D toString) against the struct if
 *        it is defined.)
 *   $(LI For structs that do not define $(D toString), the conversion _to string
 *        produces the list of fields.)
 *   $(LI Enumerated types are converted _to strings as their symbolic names.)
 *   $(LI Boolean values are printed as $(D "true") or $(D "false").)
 *   $(LI $(D char), $(D wchar), $(D dchar) _to a string type.)
 *   $(LI Unsigned or signed integers _to strings.
 *        $(DL $(DT [special case])
 *             $(DD Convert integral value _to string in $(D_PARAM radix) radix.
 *             radix must be a value from 2 to 36.
 *             value is treated as a signed value only if radix is 10.
 *             The characters A through Z are used to represent values 10 through 36
 *             and their case is determined by the $(D_PARAM letterCase) parameter.)))
 *   $(LI All floating point types _to all string types.)
 *   $(LI Pointer to string conversions prints the pointer as a $(D size_t) value.
 *        If pointer is $(D char*), treat it as C-style strings.
 *        In that case, this function is $(D @system).))
 */
@system pure unittest // @system due to cast and ptr
{
    // Conversion representing dynamic/static array with string
    long[] a = [ 1, 3, 5 ];
    assert(to!string(a) == "[1, 3, 5]");

    // Conversion representing associative array with string
    int[string] associativeArray = ["0":1, "1":2];
    assert(to!string(associativeArray) == `["0":1, "1":2]` ||
           to!string(associativeArray) == `["1":2, "0":1]`);

    // char* to string conversion
    assert(to!string(cast(char*) null) == "");
    assert(to!string("foo\0".ptr) == "foo");

    // Conversion reinterpreting void array to string
    auto w = "abcx"w;
    const(void)[] b = w;
    assert(b.length == 8);

    auto c = to!(wchar[])(b);
    assert(c == "abcx");
}

// Tests for issue 6175
@safe pure nothrow unittest
{
    char[9] sarr = "blablabla";
    auto darr = to!(char[])(sarr);
    assert(sarr.ptr == darr.ptr);
    assert(sarr.length == darr.length);
}

// Tests for issue 7348
@safe pure /+nothrow+/ unittest
{
    assert(to!string(null) == "null");
    assert(text(null) == "null");
}

// Tests for issue 11390
@safe pure /+nothrow+/ unittest
{
    const(typeof(null)) ctn;
    immutable(typeof(null)) itn;
    assert(to!string(ctn) == "null");
    assert(to!string(itn) == "null");
}

// Tests for issue 8729: do NOT skip leading WS
@safe pure unittest
{
    import std.exception;
    foreach (T; AliasSeq!(byte, ubyte, short, ushort, int, uint, long, ulong))
    {
        assertThrown!ConvException(to!T(" 0"));
        assertThrown!ConvException(to!T(" 0", 8));
    }
    foreach (T; AliasSeq!(float, double, real))
    {
        assertThrown!ConvException(to!T(" 0"));
    }

    assertThrown!ConvException(to!bool(" true"));

    alias NullType = typeof(null);
    assertThrown!ConvException(to!NullType(" null"));

    alias ARR = int[];
    assertThrown!ConvException(to!ARR(" [1]"));

    alias AA = int[int];
    assertThrown!ConvException(to!AA(" [1:1]"));
}

/**
If the source type is implicitly convertible to the target type, $(D
to) simply performs the implicit conversion.
 */
private T toImpl(T, S)(S value)
if (isImplicitlyConvertible!(S, T) &&
    !isEnumStrToStr!(S, T) && !isNullToStr!(S, T))
{
    template isSignedInt(T)
    {
        enum isSignedInt = isIntegral!T && isSigned!T;
    }
    alias isUnsignedInt = isUnsigned;

    // Conversion from integer to integer, and changing its sign
    static if (isUnsignedInt!S && isSignedInt!T && S.sizeof == T.sizeof)
    {   // unsigned to signed & same size
        import std.exception : enforce;
        enforce(value <= cast(S) T.max,
                new ConvOverflowException("Conversion positive overflow"));
    }
    else static if (isSignedInt!S && isUnsignedInt!T)
    {   // signed to unsigned
        import std.exception : enforce;
        enforce(0 <= value,
                new ConvOverflowException("Conversion negative overflow"));
    }

    return value;
}

@safe pure nothrow unittest
{
    enum E { a }  // Issue 9523 - Allow identity enum conversion
    auto e = to!E(E.a);
    assert(e == E.a);
}

@safe pure nothrow unittest
{
    int a = 42;
    auto b = to!long(a);
    assert(a == b);
}

// Tests for issue 6377
@safe pure unittest
{
    import std.exception;
    // Conversion between same size
    foreach (S; AliasSeq!(byte, short, int, long))
    (){ // avoid slow optimizations for large functions @@@BUG@@@ 2396
        alias U = Unsigned!S;

        foreach (Sint; AliasSeq!(S, const S, immutable S))
        foreach (Uint; AliasSeq!(U, const U, immutable U))
        {
            // positive overflow
            Uint un = Uint.max;
            assertThrown!ConvOverflowException(to!Sint(un),
                text(Sint.stringof, ' ', Uint.stringof, ' ', un));

            // negative overflow
            Sint sn = -1;
            assertThrown!ConvOverflowException(to!Uint(sn),
                text(Sint.stringof, ' ', Uint.stringof, ' ', un));
        }
    }();

    // Conversion between different size
    foreach (i, S1; AliasSeq!(byte, short, int, long))
    foreach (   S2; AliasSeq!(byte, short, int, long)[i+1..$])
    (){ // avoid slow optimizations for large functions @@@BUG@@@ 2396
        alias U1 = Unsigned!S1;
        alias U2 = Unsigned!S2;

        static assert(U1.sizeof < S2.sizeof);

        // small unsigned to big signed
        foreach (Uint; AliasSeq!(U1, const U1, immutable U1))
        foreach (Sint; AliasSeq!(S2, const S2, immutable S2))
        {
            Uint un = Uint.max;
            assertNotThrown(to!Sint(un));
            assert(to!Sint(un) == un);
        }

        // big unsigned to small signed
        foreach (Uint; AliasSeq!(U2, const U2, immutable U2))
        foreach (Sint; AliasSeq!(S1, const S1, immutable S1))
        {
            Uint un = Uint.max;
            assertThrown(to!Sint(un));
        }

        static assert(S1.sizeof < U2.sizeof);

        // small signed to big unsigned
        foreach (Sint; AliasSeq!(S1, const S1, immutable S1))
        foreach (Uint; AliasSeq!(U2, const U2, immutable U2))
        {
            Sint sn = -1;
            assertThrown!ConvOverflowException(to!Uint(sn));
        }

        // big signed to small unsigned
        foreach (Sint; AliasSeq!(S2, const S2, immutable S2))
        foreach (Uint; AliasSeq!(U1, const U1, immutable U1))
        {
            Sint sn = -1;
            assertThrown!ConvOverflowException(to!Uint(sn));
        }
    }();
}

/*
  Converting static arrays forwards to their dynamic counterparts.
 */
private T toImpl(T, S)(ref S s)
if (isStaticArray!S)
{
    return toImpl!(T, typeof(s[0])[])(s);
}

@safe pure nothrow unittest
{
    char[4] test = ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd'];
    static assert(!isInputRange!(Unqual!(char[4])));
    assert(to!string(test) == test);
}

/**
When source type supports member template function opCast, it is used.
*/
private T toImpl(T, S)(S value)
if (!isImplicitlyConvertible!(S, T) &&
    is(typeof(S.init.opCast!T()) : T) &&
    !isExactSomeString!T &&
    !is(typeof(T(value))))
{
    return value.opCast!T();
}

@safe pure unittest
{
    static struct Test
    {
        struct T
        {
            this(S s) @safe pure { }
        }
        struct S
        {
            T opCast(U)() @safe pure { assert(false); }
        }
    }
    cast(void) to!(Test.T)(Test.S());

    // make sure std.conv.to is doing the same thing as initialization
    Test.S s;
    Test.T t = s;
}

@safe pure unittest
{
    class B
    {
        T opCast(T)() { return 43; }
    }
    auto b = new B;
    assert(to!int(b) == 43);

    struct S
    {
        T opCast(T)() { return 43; }
    }
    auto s = S();
    assert(to!int(s) == 43);
}

/**
When target type supports 'converting construction', it is used.
$(UL $(LI If target type is struct, $(D T(value)) is used.)
     $(LI If target type is class, $(D new T(value)) is used.))
*/
private T toImpl(T, S)(S value)
if (!isImplicitlyConvertible!(S, T) &&
    is(T == struct) && is(typeof(T(value))))
{
    return T(value);
}

// Bugzilla 3961
@safe pure unittest
{
    struct Int
    {
        int x;
    }
    Int i = to!Int(1);

    static struct Int2
    {
        int x;
        this(int x) @safe pure { this.x = x; }
    }
    Int2 i2 = to!Int2(1);

    static struct Int3
    {
        int x;
        static Int3 opCall(int x) @safe pure
        {
            Int3 i;
            i.x = x;
            return i;
        }
    }
    Int3 i3 = to!Int3(1);
}

// Bugzilla 6808
@safe pure unittest
{
    static struct FakeBigInt
    {
        this(string s) @safe pure {}
    }

    string s = "101";
    auto i3 = to!FakeBigInt(s);
}

/// ditto
private T toImpl(T, S)(S value)
if (!isImplicitlyConvertible!(S, T) &&
    is(T == class) && is(typeof(new T(value))))
{
    return new T(value);
}

@safe pure unittest
{
    static struct S
    {
        int x;
    }
    static class C
    {
        int x;
        this(int x) @safe pure { this.x = x; }
    }

    static class B
    {
        int value;
        this(S src) @safe pure { value = src.x; }
        this(C src) @safe pure { value = src.x; }
    }

    S s = S(1);
    auto b1 = to!B(s);  // == new B(s)
    assert(b1.value == 1);

    C c = new C(2);
    auto b2 = to!B(c);  // == new B(c)
    assert(b2.value == 2);

    auto c2 = to!C(3);   // == new C(3)
    assert(c2.x == 3);
}

@safe pure unittest
{
    struct S
    {
        class A
        {
            this(B b) @safe pure {}
        }
        class B : A
        {
            this() @safe pure { super(this); }
        }
    }

    S.B b = new S.B();
    S.A a = to!(S.A)(b);      // == cast(S.A) b
                              // (do not run construction conversion like new S.A(b))
    assert(b is a);

    static class C : Object
    {
        this() @safe pure {}
        this(Object o) @safe pure {}
    }

    Object oc = new C();
    C a2 = to!C(oc);    // == new C(a)
                        // Construction conversion overrides down-casting conversion
    assert(a2 !is a);   //
}

/**
Object-to-object conversions by dynamic casting throw exception when the source is
non-null and the target is null.
 */
private T toImpl(T, S)(S value)
if (!isImplicitlyConvertible!(S, T) &&
    (is(S == class) || is(S == interface)) && !is(typeof(value.opCast!T()) : T) &&
    (is(T == class) || is(T == interface)) && !is(typeof(new T(value))))
{
    static if (is(T == immutable))
    {
            // immutable <- immutable
            enum isModConvertible = is(S == immutable);
    }
    else static if (is(T == const))
    {
        static if (is(T == shared))
        {
            // shared const <- shared
            // shared const <- shared const
            // shared const <- immutable
            enum isModConvertible = is(S == shared) || is(S == immutable);
        }
        else
        {
            // const <- mutable
            // const <- immutable
            enum isModConvertible = !is(S == shared);
        }
    }
    else
    {
        static if (is(T == shared))
        {
            // shared <- shared mutable
            enum isModConvertible = is(S == shared) && !is(S == const);
        }
        else
        {
            // (mutable) <- (mutable)
            enum isModConvertible = is(Unqual!S == S);
        }
    }
    static assert(isModConvertible, "Bad modifier conversion: "~S.stringof~" to "~T.stringof);

    auto result = ()@trusted{ return cast(T) value; }();
    if (!result && value)
    {
        throw new ConvException("Cannot convert object of static type "
                ~S.classinfo.name~" and dynamic type "~value.classinfo.name
                ~" to type "~T.classinfo.name);
    }
    return result;
}

// Unittest for 6288
@safe pure unittest
{
    import std.exception;

    alias Identity(T)      =              T;
    alias toConst(T)       =        const T;
    alias toShared(T)      =       shared T;
    alias toSharedConst(T) = shared const T;
    alias toImmutable(T)   =    immutable T;
    template AddModifier(int n)
    if (0 <= n && n < 5)
    {
             static if (n == 0) alias AddModifier = Identity;
        else static if (n == 1) alias AddModifier = toConst;
        else static if (n == 2) alias AddModifier = toShared;
        else static if (n == 3) alias AddModifier = toSharedConst;
        else static if (n == 4) alias AddModifier = toImmutable;
    }

    interface I {}
    interface J {}

    class A {}
    class B : A {}
    class C : B, I, J {}
    class D : I {}

    foreach (m1; AliasSeq!(0,1,2,3,4)) // enumerate modifiers
    foreach (m2; AliasSeq!(0,1,2,3,4)) // ditto
    (){ // avoid slow optimizations for large functions @@@BUG@@@ 2396
        alias srcmod = AddModifier!m1;
        alias tgtmod = AddModifier!m2;

        // Compile time convertible equals to modifier convertible.
        static if (isImplicitlyConvertible!(srcmod!Object, tgtmod!Object))
        {
            // Test runtime conversions: class to class, class to interface,
            // interface to class, and interface to interface

            // Check that the runtime conversion to succeed
            srcmod!A ac = new srcmod!C();
            srcmod!I ic = new srcmod!C();
            assert(to!(tgtmod!C)(ac) !is null); // A(c) to C
            assert(to!(tgtmod!I)(ac) !is null); // A(c) to I
            assert(to!(tgtmod!C)(ic) !is null); // I(c) to C
            assert(to!(tgtmod!J)(ic) !is null); // I(c) to J

            // Check that the runtime conversion fails
            srcmod!A ab = new srcmod!B();
            srcmod!I id = new srcmod!D();
            assertThrown(to!(tgtmod!C)(ab));    // A(b) to C
            assertThrown(to!(tgtmod!I)(ab));    // A(b) to I
            assertThrown(to!(tgtmod!C)(id));    // I(d) to C
            assertThrown(to!(tgtmod!J)(id));    // I(d) to J
        }
        else
        {
            // Check that the conversion is rejected statically
            static assert(!is(typeof(to!(tgtmod!C)(srcmod!A.init))));   // A to C
            static assert(!is(typeof(to!(tgtmod!I)(srcmod!A.init))));   // A to I
            static assert(!is(typeof(to!(tgtmod!C)(srcmod!I.init))));   // I to C
            static assert(!is(typeof(to!(tgtmod!J)(srcmod!I.init))));   // I to J
        }
    }();
}

/**
Handles type _to string conversions
*/
private T toImpl(T, S)(S value)
if (!(isImplicitlyConvertible!(S, T) &&
    !isEnumStrToStr!(S, T) && !isNullToStr!(S, T)) &&
    !isInfinite!S && isExactSomeString!T)
{
    static if (isExactSomeString!S && value[0].sizeof == ElementEncodingType!T.sizeof)
    {
        // string-to-string with incompatible qualifier conversion
        static if (is(ElementEncodingType!T == immutable))
        {
            // conversion (mutable|const) -> immutable
            return value.idup;
        }
        else
        {
            // conversion (immutable|const) -> mutable
            return value.dup;
        }
    }
    else static if (isExactSomeString!S)
    {
        import std.array : appender;
        // other string-to-string
        //Use Appender directly instead of toStr, which also uses a formatedWrite
        auto w = appender!T();
        w.put(value);
        return w.data;
    }
    else static if (isIntegral!S && !is(S == enum))
    {
        // other integral-to-string conversions with default radix
        return toImpl!(T, S)(value, 10);
    }
    else static if (is(S == void[]) || is(S == const(void)[]) || is(S == immutable(void)[]))
    {
        import core.stdc.string : memcpy;
        import std.exception : enforce;
        // Converting void array to string
        alias Char = Unqual!(ElementEncodingType!T);
        auto raw = cast(const(ubyte)[]) value;
        enforce(raw.length % Char.sizeof == 0,
                new ConvException("Alignment mismatch in converting a "
                        ~ S.stringof ~ " to a "
                        ~ T.stringof));
        auto result = new Char[raw.length / Char.sizeof];
        ()@trusted{ memcpy(result.ptr, value.ptr, value.length); }();
        return cast(T) result;
    }
    else static if (isPointer!S && isSomeChar!(PointerTarget!S))
    {
        // This is unsafe because we cannot guarantee that the pointer is null terminated.
        return () @system {
            static if (is(S : const(char)*))
                import core.stdc.string : strlen;
            else
                size_t strlen(S s) nothrow
                {
                    S p = s;
                    while (*p++) {}
                    return p-s-1;
                }
            return toImpl!T(value ? value[0 .. strlen(value)].dup : null);
        }();
    }
    else static if (isSomeString!T && is(S == enum))
    {
        static if (isSwitchable!(OriginalType!S) && EnumMembers!S.length <= 50)
        {
            switch (value)
            {
                foreach (member; NoDuplicates!(EnumMembers!S))
                {
                    case member:
                        return to!T(enumRep!(immutable(T), S, member));
                }
                default:
            }
        }
        else
        {
            foreach (member; EnumMembers!S)
            {
                if (value == member)
                    return to!T(enumRep!(immutable(T), S, member));
            }
        }

        import std.format : FormatSpec, formatValue;
        import std.array : appender;

        //Default case, delegate to format
        //Note: we don't call toStr directly, to avoid duplicate work.
        auto app = appender!T();
        app.put("cast(");
        app.put(S.stringof);
        app.put(')');
        FormatSpec!char f;
        formatValue(app, cast(OriginalType!S) value, f);
        return app.data;
    }
    else
    {
        // other non-string values runs formatting
        return toStr!T(value);
    }
}

// Bugzilla 14042
@system unittest
{
    immutable(char)* ptr = "hello".ptr;
    auto result = ptr.to!(char[]);
}
// Bugzilla 8384
@system unittest
{
    void test1(T)(T lp, string cmp)
    {
        foreach (e; AliasSeq!(char, wchar, dchar))
        {
            test2!(e[])(lp, cmp);
            test2!(const(e)[])(lp, cmp);
            test2!(immutable(e)[])(lp, cmp);
        }
    }

    void test2(D, S)(S lp, string cmp)
    {
        assert(to!string(to!D(lp)) == cmp);
    }

    foreach (e; AliasSeq!("Hello, world!", "Hello, world!"w, "Hello, world!"d))
    {
        test1(e, "Hello, world!");
        test1(e.ptr, "Hello, world!");
    }
    foreach (e; AliasSeq!("", ""w, ""d))
    {
        test1(e, "");
        test1(e.ptr, "");
    }
}

/*
    Check whether type $(D T) can be used in a switch statement.
    This is useful for compile-time generation of switch case statements.
*/
private template isSwitchable(E)
{
    enum bool isSwitchable = is(typeof({
        switch (E.init) { default: }
    }));
}

//
@safe unittest
{
    static assert(isSwitchable!int);
    static assert(!isSwitchable!double);
    static assert(!isSwitchable!real);
}

//Static representation of the index I of the enum S,
//In representation T.
//T must be an immutable string (avoids un-necessary initializations).
private template enumRep(T, S, S value)
if (is (T == immutable) && isExactSomeString!T && is(S == enum))
{
    static T enumRep = toStr!T(value);
}

@safe pure unittest
{
    import std.exception;
    void dg()
    {
        // string to string conversion
        alias Chars = AliasSeq!(char, wchar, dchar);
        foreach (LhsC; Chars)
        {
            alias LhStrings = AliasSeq!(LhsC[], const(LhsC)[], immutable(LhsC)[]);
            foreach (Lhs; LhStrings)
            {
                foreach (RhsC; Chars)
                {
                    alias RhStrings = AliasSeq!(RhsC[], const(RhsC)[], immutable(RhsC)[]);
                    foreach (Rhs; RhStrings)
                    {
                        Lhs s1 = to!Lhs("wyda");
                        Rhs s2 = to!Rhs(s1);
                        //writeln(Lhs.stringof, " -> ", Rhs.stringof);
                        assert(s1 == to!Lhs(s2));
                    }
                }
            }
        }

        foreach (T; Chars)
        {
            foreach (U; Chars)
            {
                T[] s1 = to!(T[])("Hello, world!");
                auto s2 = to!(U[])(s1);
                assert(s1 == to!(T[])(s2));
                auto s3 = to!(const(U)[])(s1);
                assert(s1 == to!(T[])(s3));
                auto s4 = to!(immutable(U)[])(s1);
                assert(s1 == to!(T[])(s4));
            }
        }
    }
    dg();
    assertCTFEable!dg;
}

@safe pure unittest
{
    // Conversion representing bool value with string
    bool b;
    assert(to!string(b) == "false");
    b = true;
    assert(to!string(b) == "true");
}

@safe pure unittest
{
    // Conversion representing character value with string
    alias AllChars =
        AliasSeq!( char, const( char), immutable( char),
                  wchar, const(wchar), immutable(wchar),
                  dchar, const(dchar), immutable(dchar));
    foreach (Char1; AllChars)
    {
        foreach (Char2; AllChars)
        {
            Char1 c = 'a';
            assert(to!(Char2[])(c)[0] == c);
        }
        uint x = 4;
        assert(to!(Char1[])(x) == "4");
    }

    string s = "foo";
    string s2;
    foreach (char c; s)
    {
        s2 ~= to!string(c);
    }
    assert(s2 == "foo");
}

@safe pure nothrow unittest
{
    import std.exception;
    // Conversion representing integer values with string

    foreach (Int; AliasSeq!(ubyte, ushort, uint, ulong))
    {
        assert(to!string(Int(0)) == "0");
        assert(to!string(Int(9)) == "9");
        assert(to!string(Int(123)) == "123");
    }

    foreach (Int; AliasSeq!(byte, short, int, long))
    {
        assert(to!string(Int(0)) == "0");
        assert(to!string(Int(9)) == "9");
        assert(to!string(Int(123)) == "123");
        assert(to!string(Int(-0)) == "0");
        assert(to!string(Int(-9)) == "-9");
        assert(to!string(Int(-123)) == "-123");
        assert(to!string(const(Int)(6)) == "6");
    }

    assert(wtext(int.max) == "2147483647"w);
    assert(wtext(int.min) == "-2147483648"w);
    assert(to!string(0L) == "0");

    assertCTFEable!(
    {
        assert(to!string(1uL << 62) == "4611686018427387904");
        assert(to!string(0x100000000) == "4294967296");
        assert(to!string(-138L) == "-138");
    });
}

@safe unittest // sprintf issue
{
    double[2] a = [ 1.5, 2.5 ];
    assert(to!string(a) == "[1.5, 2.5]");
}

@system unittest
{
    // Conversion representing class object with string
    class A
    {
        override string toString() const { return "an A"; }
    }
    A a;
    assert(to!string(a) == "null");
    a = new A;
    assert(to!string(a) == "an A");

    // Bug 7660
    class C { override string toString() const { return "C"; } }
    struct S { C c; alias c this; }
    S s; s.c = new C();
    assert(to!string(s) == "C");
}

@safe unittest
{
    // Conversion representing struct object with string
    struct S1
    {
        string toString() { return "wyda"; }
    }
    assert(to!string(S1()) == "wyda");

    struct S2
    {
        int a = 42;
        float b = 43.5;
    }
    S2 s2;
    assert(to!string(s2) == "S2(42, 43.5)");

    // Test for issue 8080
    struct S8080
    {
        short[4] data;
        alias data this;
        string toString() { return "<S>"; }
    }
    S8080 s8080;
    assert(to!string(s8080) == "<S>");
}

@safe unittest
{
    // Conversion representing enum value with string
    enum EB : bool { a = true }
    enum EU : uint { a = 0, b = 1, c = 2 }  // base type is unsigned
    enum EI : int { a = -1, b = 0, c = 1 }  // base type is signed (bug 7909)
    enum EF : real { a = 1.414, b = 1.732, c = 2.236 }
    enum EC : char { a = 'x', b = 'y' }
    enum ES : string { a = "aaa", b = "bbb" }

    foreach (E; AliasSeq!(EB, EU, EI, EF, EC, ES))
    {
        assert(to! string(E.a) == "a"c);
        assert(to!wstring(E.a) == "a"w);
        assert(to!dstring(E.a) == "a"d);
    }

    // Test an value not corresponding to an enum member.
    auto o = cast(EU) 5;
    assert(to! string(o) == "cast(EU)5"c);
    assert(to!wstring(o) == "cast(EU)5"w);
    assert(to!dstring(o) == "cast(EU)5"d);
}

@safe unittest
{
    enum E
    {
        foo,
        doo = foo, // check duplicate switch statements
        bar,
    }

    //Test regression 12494
    assert(to!string(E.foo) == "foo");
    assert(to!string(E.doo) == "foo");
    assert(to!string(E.bar) == "bar");

    foreach (S; AliasSeq!(string, wstring, dstring, const(char[]), const(wchar[]), const(dchar[])))
    {
        auto s1 = to!S(E.foo);
        auto s2 = to!S(E.foo);
        assert(s1 == s2);
        // ensure we don't allocate when it's unnecessary
        assert(s1 is s2);
    }

    foreach (S; AliasSeq!(char[], wchar[], dchar[]))
    {
        auto s1 = to!S(E.foo);
        auto s2 = to!S(E.foo);
        assert(s1 == s2);
        // ensure each mutable array is unique
        assert(s1 !is s2);
    }
}

// ditto
@trusted pure private T toImpl(T, S)(S value, uint radix, LetterCase letterCase = LetterCase.upper)
if (isIntegral!S &&
    isExactSomeString!T)
in
{
    assert(radix >= 2 && radix <= 36);
}
body
{
    alias EEType = Unqual!(ElementEncodingType!T);

    T toStringRadixConvert(size_t bufLen)(uint runtimeRadix = 0)
    {
        Unsigned!(Unqual!S) div = void, mValue = unsigned(value);

        size_t index = bufLen;
        EEType[bufLen] buffer = void;
        char baseChar = letterCase == LetterCase.lower ? 'a' : 'A';
        char mod = void;

        do
        {
            div = cast(S)(mValue / runtimeRadix );
            mod = cast(ubyte)(mValue % runtimeRadix);
            mod += mod < 10 ? '0' : baseChar - 10;
            buffer[--index] = cast(char) mod;
            mValue = div;
        } while (mValue);

        return cast(T) buffer[index .. $].dup;
    }

    import std.array : array;
    switch (radix)
    {
        case 10:
            // The (value+0) is so integral promotions happen to the type
            return toChars!(10, EEType)(value + 0).array;
        case 16:
            // The unsigned(unsigned(value)+0) is so unsigned integral promotions happen to the type
            if (letterCase == letterCase.upper)
                return toChars!(16, EEType, LetterCase.upper)(unsigned(unsigned(value) + 0)).array;
            else
                return toChars!(16, EEType, LetterCase.lower)(unsigned(unsigned(value) + 0)).array;
        case 2:
            return toChars!(2, EEType)(unsigned(unsigned(value) + 0)).array;
        case 8:
            return toChars!(8, EEType)(unsigned(unsigned(value) + 0)).array;

        default:
            return toStringRadixConvert!(S.sizeof * 6)(radix);
    }
}

@safe pure nothrow unittest
{
    foreach (Int; AliasSeq!(uint, ulong))
    {
        assert(to!string(Int(16), 16) == "10");
        assert(to!string(Int(15), 2u) == "1111");
        assert(to!string(Int(1), 2u) == "1");
        assert(to!string(Int(0x1234AF), 16u) == "1234AF");
        assert(to!string(Int(0x1234BCD), 16u, LetterCase.upper) == "1234BCD");
        assert(to!string(Int(0x1234AF), 16u, LetterCase.lower) == "1234af");
    }

    foreach (Int; AliasSeq!(int, long))
    {
        assert(to!string(Int(-10), 10u) == "-10");
    }

    assert(to!string(byte(-10), 16) == "F6");
    assert(to!string(long.min) == "-9223372036854775808");
    assert(to!string(long.max) == "9223372036854775807");
}

/**
Narrowing numeric-numeric conversions throw when the value does not
fit in the narrower type.
 */
private T toImpl(T, S)(S value)
if (!isImplicitlyConvertible!(S, T) &&
    (isNumeric!S || isSomeChar!S || isBoolean!S) &&
    (isNumeric!T || isSomeChar!T || isBoolean!T) && !is(T == enum))
{
    enum sSmallest = mostNegative!S;
    enum tSmallest = mostNegative!T;
    static if (sSmallest < 0)
    {
        // possible underflow converting from a signed
        static if (tSmallest == 0)
        {
            immutable good = value >= 0;
        }
        else
        {
            static assert(tSmallest < 0);
            immutable good = value >= tSmallest;
        }
        if (!good)
            throw new ConvOverflowException("Conversion negative overflow");
    }
    static if (S.max > T.max)
    {
        // possible overflow
        if (value > T.max)
            throw new ConvOverflowException("Conversion positive overflow");
    }
    return (ref value)@trusted{ return cast(T) value; }(value);
}

@safe pure unittest
{
    import std.exception;

    dchar a = ' ';
    assert(to!char(a) == ' ');
    a = 300;
    assert(collectException(to!char(a)));

    dchar from0 = 'A';
    char to0 = to!char(from0);

    wchar from1 = 'A';
    char to1 = to!char(from1);

    char from2 = 'A';
    char to2 = to!char(from2);

    char from3 = 'A';
    wchar to3 = to!wchar(from3);

    char from4 = 'A';
    dchar to4 = to!dchar(from4);
}

@safe unittest
{
    import std.exception;

    // Narrowing conversions from enum -> integral should be allowed, but they
    // should throw at runtime if the enum value doesn't fit in the target
    // type.
    enum E1 : ulong { A = 1, B = 1UL << 48, C = 0 }
    assert(to!int(E1.A) == 1);
    assert(to!bool(E1.A) == true);
    assertThrown!ConvOverflowException(to!int(E1.B)); // E1.B overflows int
    assertThrown!ConvOverflowException(to!bool(E1.B)); // E1.B overflows bool
    assert(to!bool(E1.C) == false);

    enum E2 : long { A = -1L << 48, B = -1 << 31, C = 1 << 31 }
    assertThrown!ConvOverflowException(to!int(E2.A)); // E2.A overflows int
    assertThrown!ConvOverflowException(to!uint(E2.B)); // E2.B overflows uint
    assert(to!int(E2.B) == -1 << 31); // but does not overflow int
    assert(to!int(E2.C) == 1 << 31);  // E2.C does not overflow int

    enum E3 : int { A = -1, B = 1, C = 255, D = 0 }
    assertThrown!ConvOverflowException(to!ubyte(E3.A));
    assertThrown!ConvOverflowException(to!bool(E3.A));
    assert(to!byte(E3.A) == -1);
    assert(to!byte(E3.B) == 1);
    assert(to!ubyte(E3.C) == 255);
    assert(to!bool(E3.B) == true);
    assertThrown!ConvOverflowException(to!byte(E3.C));
    assertThrown!ConvOverflowException(to!bool(E3.C));
    assert(to!bool(E3.D) == false);

}

/**
Array-to-array conversion (except when target is a string type)
converts each element in turn by using $(D to).
 */
private T toImpl(T, S)(S value)
if (!isImplicitlyConvertible!(S, T) &&
    !isSomeString!S && isDynamicArray!S &&
    !isExactSomeString!T && isArray!T)
{
    alias E = typeof(T.init[0]);

    static if (isStaticArray!T)
    {
        import std.exception : enforce;
        auto res = to!(E[])(value);
        enforce!ConvException(T.length == res.length,
            convFormat("Length mismatch when converting to static array: %s vs %s", T.length, res.length));
        return res[0 .. T.length];
    }
    else
    {
        import std.array : appender;
        auto w = appender!(E[])();
        w.reserve(value.length);
        foreach (i, ref e; value)
        {
            w.put(to!E(e));
        }
        return w.data;
    }
}

@safe pure unittest
{
    import std.exception;

    // array to array conversions
    uint[] a = [ 1u, 2, 3 ];
    auto b = to!(float[])(a);
    assert(b == [ 1.0f, 2, 3 ]);

    immutable(int)[3] d = [ 1, 2, 3 ];
    b = to!(float[])(d);
    assert(b == [ 1.0f, 2, 3 ]);

    uint[][] e = [ a, a ];
    auto f = to!(float[][])(e);
    assert(f[0] == b && f[1] == b);

    // Test for bug 8264
    struct Wrap
    {
        string wrap;
        alias wrap this;
    }
    Wrap[] warr = to!(Wrap[])(["foo", "bar"]);  // should work

    // Issue 12633
    import std.conv : to;
    const s2 = ["10", "20"];

    immutable int[2] a3 = s2.to!(int[2]);
    assert(a3 == [10, 20]);

    // verify length mismatches are caught
    immutable s4 = [1, 2, 3, 4];
    foreach (i; [1, 4])
    {
        auto ex = collectException(s4[0 .. i].to!(int[2]));
            assert(ex && ex.msg == "Length mismatch when converting to static array: 2 vs " ~ [cast(char)(i + '0')],
                ex ? ex.msg : "Exception was not thrown!");
    }
}

@safe unittest
{
    auto b = [ 1.0f, 2, 3 ];

    auto c = to!(string[])(b);
    assert(c[0] == "1" && c[1] == "2" && c[2] == "3");
}

/**
Associative array to associative array conversion converts each key
and each value in turn.
 */
private T toImpl(T, S)(S value)
if (isAssociativeArray!S &&
    isAssociativeArray!T && !is(T == enum))
{
    /* This code is potentially unsafe.
     */
    alias K2 = KeyType!T;
    alias V2 = ValueType!T;

    // While we are "building" the AA, we need to unqualify its values, and only re-qualify at the end
    Unqual!V2[K2] result;

    foreach (k1, v1; value)
    {
        // Cast values temporarily to Unqual!V2 to store them to result variable
        result[to!K2(k1)] = cast(Unqual!V2) to!V2(v1);
    }
    // Cast back to original type
    return cast(T) result;
}

@safe unittest
{
    // hash to hash conversions
    int[string] a;
    a["0"] = 1;
    a["1"] = 2;
    auto b = to!(double[dstring])(a);
    assert(b["0"d] == 1 && b["1"d] == 2);
}
@safe unittest // Bugzilla 8705, from doc
{
    import std.exception;
    int[string][double[int[]]] a;
    auto b = to!(short[wstring][string[double[]]])(a);
    a = [null:["hello":int.max]];
    assertThrown!ConvOverflowException(to!(short[wstring][string[double[]]])(a));
}
@system unittest // Extra cases for AA with qualifiers conversion
{
    int[][int[]] a;// = [[], []];
    auto b = to!(immutable(short[])[immutable short[]])(a);

    double[dstring][int[long[]]] c;
    auto d = to!(immutable(short[immutable wstring])[immutable string[double[]]])(c);
}

private void testIntegralToFloating(Integral, Floating)()
{
    Integral a = 42;
    auto b = to!Floating(a);
    assert(a == b);
    assert(a == to!Integral(b));
}

private void testFloatingToIntegral(Floating, Integral)()
{
    bool convFails(Source, Target, E)(Source src)
    {
        try
            auto t = to!Target(src);
        catch (E)
            return true;
        return false;
    }

    // convert some value
    Floating a = 4.2e1;
    auto b = to!Integral(a);
    assert(is(typeof(b) == Integral) && b == 42);
    // convert some negative value (if applicable)
    a = -4.2e1;
    static if (Integral.min < 0)
    {
        b = to!Integral(a);
        assert(is(typeof(b) == Integral) && b == -42);
    }
    else
    {
        // no go for unsigned types
        assert(convFails!(Floating, Integral, ConvOverflowException)(a));
    }
    // convert to the smallest integral value
    a = 0.0 + Integral.min;
    static if (Integral.min < 0)
    {
        a = -a; // -Integral.min not representable as an Integral
        assert(convFails!(Floating, Integral, ConvOverflowException)(a)
                || Floating.sizeof <= Integral.sizeof);
    }
    a = 0.0 + Integral.min;
    assert(to!Integral(a) == Integral.min);
    --a; // no more representable as an Integral
    assert(convFails!(Floating, Integral, ConvOverflowException)(a)
            || Floating.sizeof <= Integral.sizeof);
    a = 0.0 + Integral.max;
    assert(to!Integral(a) == Integral.max || Floating.sizeof <= Integral.sizeof);
    ++a; // no more representable as an Integral
    assert(convFails!(Floating, Integral, ConvOverflowException)(a)
            || Floating.sizeof <= Integral.sizeof);
    // convert a value with a fractional part
    a = 3.14;
    assert(to!Integral(a) == 3);
    a = 3.99;
    assert(to!Integral(a) == 3);
    static if (Integral.min < 0)
    {
        a = -3.14;
        assert(to!Integral(a) == -3);
        a = -3.99;
        assert(to!Integral(a) == -3);
    }
}

@safe pure unittest
{
    alias AllInts = AliasSeq!(byte, ubyte, short, ushort, int, uint, long, ulong);
    alias AllFloats = AliasSeq!(float, double, real);
    alias AllNumerics = AliasSeq!(AllInts, AllFloats);
    // test with same type
    {
        foreach (T; AllNumerics)
        {
            T a = 42;
            auto b = to!T(a);
            assert(is(typeof(a) == typeof(b)) && a == b);
        }
    }
    // test that floating-point numbers convert properly to largest ints
    // see http://oregonstate.edu/~peterseb/mth351/docs/351s2001_fp80x87.html
    // look for "largest fp integer with a predecessor"
    {
        // float
        int a = 16_777_215; // 2^24 - 1
        assert(to!int(to!float(a)) == a);
        assert(to!int(to!float(-a)) == -a);
        // double
        long b = 9_007_199_254_740_991; // 2^53 - 1
        assert(to!long(to!double(b)) == b);
        assert(to!long(to!double(-b)) == -b);
        // real
        static if (real.mant_dig >= 64)
        {
            ulong c = 18_446_744_073_709_551_615UL; // 2^64 - 1
            assert(to!ulong(to!real(c)) == c);
        }
    }
    // test conversions floating => integral
    {
        // AllInts[0 .. $ - 1] should be AllInts
        // @@@ BUG IN COMPILER @@@
        foreach (Integral; AllInts[0 .. $ - 1])
        {
            foreach (Floating; AllFloats)
            {
                testFloatingToIntegral!(Floating, Integral)();
            }
        }
    }
    // test conversion integral => floating
    {
        foreach (Integral; AllInts[0 .. $ - 1])
        {
            foreach (Floating; AllFloats)
            {
                testIntegralToFloating!(Integral, Floating)();
            }
        }
    }
    // test parsing
    {
        foreach (T; AllNumerics)
        {
            // from type immutable(char)[2]
            auto a = to!T("42");
            assert(a == 42);
            // from type char[]
            char[] s1 = "42".dup;
            a = to!T(s1);
            assert(a == 42);
            // from type char[2]
            char[2] s2;
            s2[] = "42";
            a = to!T(s2);
            assert(a == 42);
            // from type immutable(wchar)[2]
            a = to!T("42"w);
            assert(a == 42);
        }
    }
}

@safe unittest
{
    alias AllInts = AliasSeq!(byte, ubyte, short, ushort, int, uint, long, ulong);
    alias AllFloats = AliasSeq!(float, double, real);
    alias AllNumerics = AliasSeq!(AllInts, AllFloats);
    // test conversions to string
    {
        foreach (T; AllNumerics)
        {
            T a = 42;
            assert(to!string(a) == "42");
            assert(to!wstring(a) == "42"w);
            assert(to!dstring(a) == "42"d);
            // array test
            T[] b = new T[2];
            b[0] = 42;
            b[1] = 33;
            assert(to!string(b) == "[42, 33]");
        }
    }
    // test array to string conversion
    foreach (T ; AllNumerics)
    {
        auto a = [to!T(1), 2, 3];
        assert(to!string(a) == "[1, 2, 3]");
    }
    // test enum to int conversion
    enum Testing { Test1, Test2 }
    Testing t;
    auto a = to!string(t);
    assert(a == "Test1");
}


/**
String, or string-like input range, to non-string conversion runs parsing.
$(UL
  $(LI When the source is a wide string, it is first converted to a narrow
       string and then parsed.)
  $(LI When the source is a narrow string, normal text parsing occurs.))
*/
private T toImpl(T, S)(S value)
if (isInputRange!S && isSomeChar!(ElementEncodingType!S) &&
    !isExactSomeString!T && is(typeof(parse!T(value))))
{
    scope(success)
    {
        if (!value.empty)
        {
            throw convError!(S, T)(value);
        }
    }
    return parse!T(value);
}

/// ditto
private T toImpl(T, S)(S value, uint radix)
if (isInputRange!S && !isInfinite!S && isSomeChar!(ElementEncodingType!S) &&
    !isExactSomeString!T && is(typeof(parse!T(value, radix))))
{
    scope(success)
    {
        if (!value.empty)
        {
            throw convError!(S, T)(value);
        }
    }
    return parse!T(value, radix);
}

@safe pure unittest
{
    // Issue 6668 - ensure no collaterals thrown
    try { to!uint("-1"); }
    catch (ConvException e) { assert(e.next is null); }
}

@safe pure unittest
{
    foreach (Str; AliasSeq!(string, wstring, dstring))
    {
        Str a = "123";
        assert(to!int(a) == 123);
        assert(to!double(a) == 123);
    }

    // 6255
    auto n = to!int("FF", 16);
    assert(n == 255);
}

// bugzilla 15800
@safe unittest
{
    import std.utf : byCodeUnit, byChar, byWchar, byDchar;

    assert(to!int(byCodeUnit("10")) == 10);
    assert(to!int(byCodeUnit("10"), 10) == 10);
    assert(to!int(byCodeUnit("10"w)) == 10);
    assert(to!int(byCodeUnit("10"w), 10) == 10);

    assert(to!int(byChar("10")) == 10);
    assert(to!int(byChar("10"), 10) == 10);
    assert(to!int(byWchar("10")) == 10);
    assert(to!int(byWchar("10"), 10) == 10);
    assert(to!int(byDchar("10")) == 10);
    assert(to!int(byDchar("10"), 10) == 10);
}

/**
Convert a value that is implicitly convertible to the enum base type
into an Enum value. If the value does not match any enum member values
a ConvException is thrown.
Enums with floating-point or string base types are not supported.
*/
private T toImpl(T, S)(S value)
if (is(T == enum) && !is(S == enum)
    && is(typeof(value == OriginalType!T.init))
    && !isFloatingPoint!(OriginalType!T) && !isSomeString!(OriginalType!T))
{
    foreach (Member; EnumMembers!T)
    {
        if (Member == value)
            return Member;
    }
    throw new ConvException(convFormat("Value (%s) does not match any member value of enum '%s'", value, T.stringof));
}

@safe pure unittest
{
    import std.exception;
    enum En8143 : int { A = 10, B = 20, C = 30, D = 20 }
    enum En8143[][] m3 = to!(En8143[][])([[10, 30], [30, 10]]);
    static assert(m3 == [[En8143.A, En8143.C], [En8143.C, En8143.A]]);

    En8143 en1 = to!En8143(10);
    assert(en1 == En8143.A);
    assertThrown!ConvException(to!En8143(5));   // matches none
    En8143[][] m1 = to!(En8143[][])([[10, 30], [30, 10]]);
    assert(m1 == [[En8143.A, En8143.C], [En8143.C, En8143.A]]);
}

/***************************************************************
 Rounded conversion from floating point to integral.

Rounded conversions do not work with non-integral target types.
 */

template roundTo(Target)
{
    Target roundTo(Source)(Source value)
    {
        import std.math : trunc;

        static assert(isFloatingPoint!Source);
        static assert(isIntegral!Target);
        return to!Target(trunc(value + (value < 0 ? -0.5L : 0.5L)));
    }
}

///
@safe unittest
{
    assert(roundTo!int(3.14) == 3);
    assert(roundTo!int(3.49) == 3);
    assert(roundTo!int(3.5) == 4);
    assert(roundTo!int(3.999) == 4);
    assert(roundTo!int(-3.14) == -3);
    assert(roundTo!int(-3.49) == -3);
    assert(roundTo!int(-3.5) == -4);
    assert(roundTo!int(-3.999) == -4);
    assert(roundTo!(const int)(to!(const double)(-3.999)) == -4);
}

@safe unittest
{
    import std.exception;
    // boundary values
    foreach (Int; AliasSeq!(byte, ubyte, short, ushort, int, uint))
    {
        assert(roundTo!Int(Int.min - 0.4L) == Int.min);
        assert(roundTo!Int(Int.max + 0.4L) == Int.max);
        assertThrown!ConvOverflowException(roundTo!Int(Int.min - 0.5L));
        assertThrown!ConvOverflowException(roundTo!Int(Int.max + 0.5L));
    }
}

/**
The $(D parse) family of functions works quite like the $(D to)
family, except that:
$(OL
    $(LI It only works with character ranges as input.)
    $(LI It takes the input by reference. (This means that rvalues - such
    as string literals - are not accepted: use $(D to) instead.))
    $(LI It advances the input to the position following the conversion.)
    $(LI It does not throw if it could not convert the entire input.))

This overload converts an character input range to a `bool`.

Params:
    Target = the type to convert to
    source = the lvalue of an $(REF_ALTTEXT input range, isInputRange, std,range,primitives)

Returns:
    A `bool`

Throws:
    A $(LREF ConvException) if the range does not represent a `bool`.

Note:
    All character input range conversions using $(LREF to) are forwarded
    to `parse` and do not require lvalues.
*/
Target parse(Target, Source)(ref Source source)
if (isInputRange!Source &&
    isSomeChar!(ElementType!Source) &&
    is(Unqual!Target == bool))
{
    import std.ascii : toLower;

    static if (isNarrowString!Source)
    {
        import std.string : representation;
        auto s = source.representation;
    }
    else
    {
        alias s = source;
    }

    if (!s.empty)
    {
        auto c1 = toLower(s.front);
        bool result = c1 == 't';
        if (result || c1 == 'f')
        {
            s.popFront();
            foreach (c; result ? "rue" : "alse")
            {
                if (s.empty || toLower(s.front) != c)
                    goto Lerr;
                s.popFront();
            }

            static if (isNarrowString!Source)
                source = cast(Source) s;

            return result;
        }
    }
Lerr:
    throw parseError("bool should be case-insensitive 'true' or 'false'");
}

///
@safe unittest
{
    auto s = "true";
    bool b = parse!bool(s);
    assert(b);
}

@safe unittest
{
    import std.exception;
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;
    struct InputString
    {
        string _s;
        @property auto front() { return _s.front; }
        @property bool empty() { return _s.empty; }
        void popFront() { _s.popFront(); }
    }

    auto s = InputString("trueFALSETrueFalsetRUEfALSE");
    assert(parse!bool(s) == true);
    assert(s.equal("FALSETrueFalsetRUEfALSE"));
    assert(parse!bool(s) == false);
    assert(s.equal("TrueFalsetRUEfALSE"));
    assert(parse!bool(s) == true);
    assert(s.equal("FalsetRUEfALSE"));
    assert(parse!bool(s) == false);
    assert(s.equal("tRUEfALSE"));
    assert(parse!bool(s) == true);
    assert(s.equal("fALSE"));
    assert(parse!bool(s) == false);
    assert(s.empty);

    foreach (ss; ["tfalse", "ftrue", "t", "f", "tru", "fals", ""])
    {
        s = InputString(ss);
        assertThrown!ConvException(parse!bool(s));
    }
}

/**
Parses a character $(REF_ALTTEXT input range, isInputRange, std,range,primitives)
to an integral value.

Params:
    Target = the integral type to convert to
    s = the lvalue of an input range

Returns:
    A number of type `Target`

Throws:
    A $(LREF ConvException) If an overflow occurred during conversion or
    if no character of the input was meaningfully converted.
*/
Target parse(Target, Source)(ref Source s)
if (isSomeChar!(ElementType!Source) &&
    isIntegral!Target && !is(Target == enum))
{
    static if (Target.sizeof < int.sizeof)
    {
        // smaller types are handled like integers
        auto v = .parse!(Select!(Target.min < 0, int, uint))(s);
        auto result = ()@trusted{ return cast(Target) v; }();
        if (result == v)
            return result;
        throw new ConvOverflowException("Overflow in integral conversion");
    }
    else
    {
        // int or larger types

        static if (Target.min < 0)
            bool sign = false;
        else
            enum bool sign = false;

        enum char maxLastDigit = Target.min < 0 ? 7 : 5;
        uint c;

        static if (isNarrowString!Source)
        {
            import std.string : representation;
            auto source = s.representation;
        }
        else
        {
            alias source = s;
        }

        if (source.empty)
            goto Lerr;

        c = source.front;

        static if (Target.min < 0)
        {
            switch (c)
            {
                case '-':
                    sign = true;
                    goto case '+';
                case '+':
                    source.popFront();

                    if (source.empty)
                        goto Lerr;

                    c = source.front;

                    break;

                default:
                    break;
            }
        }
        c -= '0';
        if (c <= 9)
        {
            Target v = cast(Target) c;

            source.popFront();

            while (!source.empty)
            {
                c = cast(typeof(c)) (source.front - '0');

                if (c > 9)
                    break;

                if (v >= 0 && (v < Target.max/10 ||
                    (v == Target.max/10 && c <= maxLastDigit + sign)))
                {
                    // Note: `v` can become negative here in case of parsing
                    // the most negative value:
                    v = cast(Target) (v * 10 + c);

                    source.popFront();
                }
                else
                    throw new ConvOverflowException("Overflow in integral conversion");
            }

            if (sign)
                v = -v;

            static if (isNarrowString!Source)
                s = cast(Source) source;

            return v;
        }
Lerr:
        static if (isNarrowString!Source)
            throw convError!(Source, Target)(cast(Source) source);
        else
            throw convError!(Source, Target)(source);
    }
}

///
@safe pure unittest
{
    string s = "123";
    auto a = parse!int(s);
    assert(a == 123);

    // parse only accepts lvalues
    static assert(!__traits(compiles, parse!int("123")));
}

///
@safe pure unittest
{
    import std.string : munch;
    string test = "123 \t  76.14";
    auto a = parse!uint(test);
    assert(a == 123);
    assert(test == " \t  76.14"); // parse bumps string
    munch(test, " \t\n\r"); // skip ws
    assert(test == "76.14");
    auto b = parse!double(test);
    assert(b == 76.14);
    assert(test == "");
}

@safe pure unittest
{
    foreach (Int; AliasSeq!(byte, ubyte, short, ushort, int, uint, long, ulong))
    {
        {
            assert(to!Int("0") == 0);

            static if (isSigned!Int)
            {
                assert(to!Int("+0") == 0);
                assert(to!Int("-0") == 0);
            }
        }

        static if (Int.sizeof >= byte.sizeof)
        {
                assert(to!Int("6") == 6);
                assert(to!Int("23") == 23);
                assert(to!Int("68") == 68);
                assert(to!Int("127") == 0x7F);

            static if (isUnsigned!Int)
            {
                assert(to!Int("255") == 0xFF);
            }
            static if (isSigned!Int)
            {
                assert(to!Int("+6") == 6);
                assert(to!Int("+23") == 23);
                assert(to!Int("+68") == 68);
                assert(to!Int("+127") == 0x7F);

                assert(to!Int("-6") == -6);
                assert(to!Int("-23") == -23);
                assert(to!Int("-68") == -68);
                assert(to!Int("-128") == -128);
            }
        }

        static if (Int.sizeof >= short.sizeof)
        {
                assert(to!Int("468") == 468);
                assert(to!Int("32767") == 0x7FFF);

            static if (isUnsigned!Int)
            {
                assert(to!Int("65535") == 0xFFFF);
            }
            static if (isSigned!Int)
            {
                assert(to!Int("+468") == 468);
                assert(to!Int("+32767") == 0x7FFF);

                assert(to!Int("-468") == -468);
                assert(to!Int("-32768") == -32768);
            }
        }

        static if (Int.sizeof >= int.sizeof)
        {
                assert(to!Int("2147483647") == 0x7FFFFFFF);

            static if (isUnsigned!Int)
            {
                assert(to!Int("4294967295") == 0xFFFFFFFF);
            }

            static if (isSigned!Int)
            {
                assert(to!Int("+2147483647") == 0x7FFFFFFF);

                assert(to!Int("-2147483648") == -2147483648);
            }
        }

        static if (Int.sizeof >= long.sizeof)
        {
                assert(to!Int("9223372036854775807") == 0x7FFFFFFFFFFFFFFF);

            static if (isUnsigned!Int)
            {
                assert(to!Int("18446744073709551615") == 0xFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF);
            }

            static if (isSigned!Int)
            {
                assert(to!Int("+9223372036854775807") == 0x7FFFFFFFFFFFFFFF);

                assert(to!Int("-9223372036854775808") == 0x8000000000000000);
            }
        }
    }
}

@safe pure unittest
{
    import std.exception;
    // parsing error check
    foreach (Int; AliasSeq!(byte, ubyte, short, ushort, int, uint, long, ulong))
    {
        {
            immutable string[] errors1 =
            [
                "",
                "-",
                "+",
                "-+",
                " ",
                " 0",
                "0 ",
                "- 0",
                "1-",
                "xx",
                "123h",
                "-+1",
                "--1",
                "+-1",
                "++1",
            ];
            foreach (j, s; errors1)
                assertThrown!ConvException(to!Int(s));
        }

        // parse!SomeUnsigned cannot parse head sign.
        static if (isUnsigned!Int)
        {
            immutable string[] errors2 =
            [
                "+5",
                "-78",
            ];
            foreach (j, s; errors2)
                assertThrown!ConvException(to!Int(s));
        }
    }

    // positive overflow check
    foreach (i, Int; AliasSeq!(byte, ubyte, short, ushort, int, uint, long, ulong))
    {
        immutable string[] errors =
        [
            "128",                  // > byte.max
            "256",                  // > ubyte.max
            "32768",                // > short.max
            "65536",                // > ushort.max
            "2147483648",           // > int.max
            "4294967296",           // > uint.max
            "9223372036854775808",  // > long.max
            "18446744073709551616", // > ulong.max
        ];
        foreach (j, s; errors[i..$])
            assertThrown!ConvOverflowException(to!Int(s));
    }

    // negative overflow check
    foreach (i, Int; AliasSeq!(byte, short, int, long))
    {
        immutable string[] errors =
        [
            "-129",                 // < byte.min
            "-32769",               // < short.min
            "-2147483649",          // < int.min
            "-9223372036854775809", // < long.min
        ];
        foreach (j, s; errors[i..$])
            assertThrown!ConvOverflowException(to!Int(s));
    }
}

@safe pure unittest
{
    void checkErrMsg(string input, dchar charInMsg, dchar charNotInMsg)
    {
        try
        {
            int x = input.to!int();
            assert(false, "Invalid conversion did not throw");
        }
        catch (ConvException e)
        {
            // Ensure error message contains failing character, not the character
            // beyond.
            import std.algorithm.searching : canFind;
            assert( e.msg.canFind(charInMsg) &&
                   !e.msg.canFind(charNotInMsg));
        }
        catch (Exception e)
        {
            assert(false, "Did not throw ConvException");
        }
    }
    checkErrMsg("@$", '@', '$');
    checkErrMsg("@$123", '@', '$');
    checkErrMsg("1@$23", '@', '$');
    checkErrMsg("1@$", '@', '$');
    checkErrMsg("1@$2", '@', '$');
    checkErrMsg("12@$", '@', '$');
}

@safe pure unittest
{
    import std.exception;
    assertCTFEable!({ string s =  "1234abc"; assert(parse! int(s) ==  1234 && s == "abc"); });
    assertCTFEable!({ string s = "-1234abc"; assert(parse! int(s) == -1234 && s == "abc"); });
    assertCTFEable!({ string s =  "1234abc"; assert(parse!uint(s) ==  1234 && s == "abc"); });
}

// Issue 13931
@safe pure unittest
{
    import std.exception;

    assertThrown!ConvOverflowException("-21474836480".to!int());
    assertThrown!ConvOverflowException("-92233720368547758080".to!long());
}

// Issue 14396
@safe pure unittest
{
    struct StrInputRange
    {
        this (string s) { str = s; }
        char front() const @property { return str[front_index]; }
        char popFront() { return str[front_index++]; }
        bool empty() const @property { return str.length <= front_index; }
        string str;
        size_t front_index = 0;
    }
    auto input = StrInputRange("777");
    assert(parse!int(input) == 777);
}

/// ditto
Target parse(Target, Source)(ref Source source, uint radix)
if (isSomeChar!(ElementType!Source) &&
    isIntegral!Target && !is(Target == enum))
in
{
    assert(radix >= 2 && radix <= 36);
}
body
{
    import core.checkedint : mulu, addu;
    import std.exception : enforce;

    if (radix == 10)
        return parse!Target(source);

    enforce!ConvException(!source.empty, "s must not be empty in integral parse");

    immutable uint beyond = (radix < 10 ? '0' : 'a'-10) + radix;
    Target v = 0;

    static if (isNarrowString!Source)
    {
        import std.string : representation;
        auto s = source.representation;
    }
    else
    {
        alias s = source;
    }

    do
    {
        uint c = s.front;
        if (c < '0')
            break;
        if (radix < 10)
        {
            if (c >= beyond)
                break;
        }
        else
        {
            if (c > '9')
            {
                c |= 0x20;//poorman's tolower
                if (c < 'a' || c >= beyond)
                    break;
                c -= 'a'-10-'0';
            }
        }

        bool overflow = false;
        auto nextv = v.mulu(radix, overflow).addu(c - '0', overflow);
        enforce!ConvOverflowException(!overflow && nextv <= Target.max, "Overflow in integral conversion");
        v = cast(Target) nextv;
        s.popFront();
    } while (!s.empty);

    static if (isNarrowString!Source)
        source = cast(Source) s;

    return v;
}

@safe pure unittest
{
    string s; // parse doesn't accept rvalues
    foreach (i; 2 .. 37)
    {
        assert(parse!int(s = "0", i) == 0);
        assert(parse!int(s = "1", i) == 1);
        assert(parse!byte(s = "10", i) == i);
    }

    assert(parse!int(s = "0011001101101", 2) == 0b0011001101101);
    assert(parse!int(s = "765", 8) == octal!765);
    assert(parse!int(s = "fCDe", 16) == 0xfcde);

    // 6609
    assert(parse!int(s = "-42", 10) == -42);

    assert(parse!ubyte(s = "ff", 16) == 0xFF);
}

@safe pure unittest // bugzilla 7302
{
    import std.range : cycle;
    auto r = cycle("2A!");
    auto u = parse!uint(r, 16);
    assert(u == 42);
    assert(r.front == '!');
}

@safe pure unittest // bugzilla 13163
{
    import std.exception;
    foreach (s; ["fff", "123"])
        assertThrown!ConvOverflowException(s.parse!ubyte(16));
}

@safe pure unittest // bugzilla 17282
{
    auto str = "0=\x00\x02\x55\x40&\xff\xf0\n\x00\x04\x55\x40\xff\xf0~4+10\n";
    assert(parse!uint(str) == 0);
}

/**
 * Takes a string representing an `enum` type and returns that type.
 *
 * Params:
 *     Target = the `enum` type to convert to
 *     s = the lvalue of the range to _parse
 *
 * Returns:
 *     An `enum` of type `Target`
 *
 * Throws:
 *     A $(LREF ConvException) if type `Target` does not have a member
 *     represented by `s`.
 */
Target parse(Target, Source)(ref Source s)
if (isSomeString!Source && !is(Source == enum) &&
    is(Target == enum))
{
    import std.algorithm.searching : startsWith;
    Target result;
    size_t longest_match = 0;

    foreach (i, e; EnumMembers!Target)
    {
        auto ident = __traits(allMembers, Target)[i];
        if (longest_match < ident.length && s.startsWith(ident))
        {
            result = e;
            longest_match = ident.length ;
        }
    }

    if (longest_match > 0)
    {
        s = s[longest_match .. $];
        return result ;
    }

    throw new ConvException(
        Target.stringof ~ " does not have a member named '"
        ~ to!string(s) ~ "'");
}

///
@safe unittest
{
    enum EnumType : bool { a = true, b = false, c = a }

    auto str = "a";
    assert(parse!EnumType(str) == EnumType.a);
}

@safe unittest
{
    import std.exception;

    enum EB : bool { a = true, b = false, c = a }
    enum EU { a, b, c }
    enum EI { a = -1, b = 0, c = 1 }
    enum EF : real { a = 1.414, b = 1.732, c = 2.236 }
    enum EC : char { a = 'a', b = 'b', c = 'c' }
    enum ES : string { a = "aaa", b = "bbb", c = "ccc" }

    foreach (E; AliasSeq!(EB, EU, EI, EF, EC, ES))
    {
        assert(to!E("a"c) == E.a);
        assert(to!E("b"w) == E.b);
        assert(to!E("c"d) == E.c);

        assertThrown!ConvException(to!E("d"));
    }
}

@safe pure unittest // bugzilla 4744
{
    enum A { member1, member11, member111 }
    assert(to!A("member1"  ) == A.member1  );
    assert(to!A("member11" ) == A.member11 );
    assert(to!A("member111") == A.member111);
    auto s = "member1111";
    assert(parse!A(s) == A.member111 && s == "1");
}

/**
 * Parses a character range to a floating point number.
 *
 * Params:
 *     Target = a floating point type
 *     source = the lvalue of the range to _parse
 *
 * Returns:
 *     A floating point number of type `Target`
 *
 * Throws:
 *     A $(LREF ConvException) if `p` is empty, if no number could be
 *     parsed, or if an overflow occurred.
 */
Target parse(Target, Source)(ref Source source)
if (isInputRange!Source && isSomeChar!(ElementType!Source) && !is(Source == enum) &&
    isFloatingPoint!Target && !is(Target == enum))
{
    import std.ascii : isDigit, isAlpha, toLower, toUpper, isHexDigit;
    import std.exception : enforce;
    import core.stdc.math : HUGE_VAL;

    static if (isNarrowString!Source)
    {
        import std.string : representation;
        auto p = source.representation;
    }
    else
    {
        alias p = source;
    }

    static immutable real[14] negtab =
        [ 1e-4096L,1e-2048L,1e-1024L,1e-512L,1e-256L,1e-128L,1e-64L,1e-32L,
                1e-16L,1e-8L,1e-4L,1e-2L,1e-1L,1.0L ];
    static immutable real[13] postab =
        [ 1e+4096L,1e+2048L,1e+1024L,1e+512L,1e+256L,1e+128L,1e+64L,1e+32L,
                1e+16L,1e+8L,1e+4L,1e+2L,1e+1L ];

    ConvException bailOut()(string msg = null, string fn = __FILE__, size_t ln = __LINE__)
    {
        if (msg == null)
            msg = "Floating point conversion error";
        return new ConvException(text(msg, " for input \"", p, "\"."), fn, ln);
    }


    enforce(!p.empty, bailOut());

    bool sign = false;
    switch (p.front)
    {
    case '-':
        sign = true;
        p.popFront();
        enforce(!p.empty, bailOut());
        if (toLower(p.front) == 'i')
            goto case 'i';
        enforce(!p.empty, bailOut());
        break;
    case '+':
        p.popFront();
        enforce(!p.empty, bailOut());
        break;
    case 'i': case 'I':
        p.popFront();
        enforce(!p.empty, bailOut());
        if (toLower(p.front) == 'n')
        {
            p.popFront();
            enforce(!p.empty, bailOut());
            if (toLower(p.front) == 'f')
            {
                // 'inf'
                p.popFront();
                static if (isNarrowString!Source)
                    source = cast(Source) p;
                return sign ? -Target.infinity : Target.infinity;
            }
        }
        goto default;
    default: {}
    }

    bool isHex = false;
    bool startsWithZero = p.front == '0';
    if (startsWithZero)
    {
        p.popFront();
        if (p.empty)
        {
            static if (isNarrowString!Source)
                source = cast(Source) p;
            return sign ? -0.0 : 0.0;
        }

        isHex = p.front == 'x' || p.front == 'X';
    }

    real ldval = 0.0;
    char dot = 0;                        /* if decimal point has been seen */
    int exp = 0;
    long msdec = 0, lsdec = 0;
    ulong msscale = 1;

    if (isHex)
    {
        int guard = 0;
        int anydigits = 0;
        uint ndigits = 0;

        p.popFront();
        while (!p.empty)
        {
            int i = p.front;
            while (isHexDigit(i))
            {
                anydigits = 1;
                i = isAlpha(i) ? ((i & ~0x20) - ('A' - 10)) : i - '0';
                if (ndigits < 16)
                {
                    msdec = msdec * 16 + i;
                    if (msdec)
                        ndigits++;
                }
                else if (ndigits == 16)
                {
                    while (msdec >= 0)
                    {
                        exp--;
                        msdec <<= 1;
                        i <<= 1;
                        if (i & 0x10)
                            msdec |= 1;
                    }
                    guard = i << 4;
                    ndigits++;
                    exp += 4;
                }
                else
                {
                    guard |= i;
                    exp += 4;
                }
                exp -= dot;
                p.popFront();
                if (p.empty)
                    break;
                i = p.front;
                if (i == '_')
                {
                    p.popFront();
                    if (p.empty)
                        break;
                    i = p.front;
                }
            }
            if (i == '.' && !dot)
            {
                p.popFront();
                dot = 4;
            }
            else
                break;
        }

        // Round up if (guard && (sticky || odd))
        if (guard & 0x80 && (guard & 0x7F || msdec & 1))
        {
            msdec++;
            if (msdec == 0)                 // overflow
            {
                msdec = 0x8000000000000000L;
                exp++;
            }
        }

        enforce(anydigits, bailOut());
        enforce(!p.empty && (p.front == 'p' || p.front == 'P'),
                bailOut("Floating point parsing: exponent is required"));
        char sexp;
        int e;

        sexp = 0;
        p.popFront();
        if (!p.empty)
        {
            switch (p.front)
            {
                case '-':    sexp++;
                             goto case;
                case '+':    p.popFront(); enforce(!p.empty,
                                new ConvException("Error converting input"~
                                " to floating point"));
                             break;
                default: {}
            }
        }
        ndigits = 0;
        e = 0;
        while (!p.empty && isDigit(p.front))
        {
            if (e < 0x7FFFFFFF / 10 - 10) // prevent integer overflow
            {
                e = e * 10 + p.front - '0';
            }
            p.popFront();
            ndigits = 1;
        }
        exp += (sexp) ? -e : e;
        enforce(ndigits, new ConvException("Error converting input"~
                        " to floating point"));

        static if (real.mant_dig == 64)
        {
            if (msdec)
            {
                int e2 = 0x3FFF + 63;

                // left justify mantissa
                while (msdec >= 0)
                {
                    msdec <<= 1;
                    e2--;
                }

                // Stuff mantissa directly into real
                ()@trusted{ *cast(long*)&ldval = msdec; }();
                ()@trusted{ (cast(ushort*)&ldval)[4] = cast(ushort) e2; }();

                import std.math : ldexp;

                // Exponent is power of 2, not power of 10
                ldval = ldexp(ldval,exp);
            }
        }
        else static if (real.mant_dig == 53)
        {
            if (msdec)
            {
                //Exponent bias + 52:
                //After shifting 52 times left, exp must be 1
                int e2 = 0x3FF + 52;

                // right justify mantissa
                // first 11 bits must be zero, rest is implied bit + mantissa
                // shift one time less, do rounding, shift again
                while ((msdec & 0xFFC0_0000_0000_0000) != 0)
                {
                    msdec  = ((cast(ulong) msdec) >> 1);
                    e2++;
                }

                //Have to shift one more time
                //and do rounding
                if ((msdec & 0xFFE0_0000_0000_0000) != 0)
                {
                    auto roundUp = (msdec & 0x1);

                    msdec  = ((cast(ulong) msdec) >> 1);
                    e2++;
                    if (roundUp)
                    {
                        msdec += 1;
                        //If mantissa was 0b1111... and we added +1
                        //the mantissa should be 0b10000 (think of implicit bit)
                        //and the exponent increased
                        if ((msdec & 0x0020_0000_0000_0000) != 0)
                        {
                            msdec = 0x0010_0000_0000_0000;
                            e2++;
                        }
                    }
                }


                // left justify mantissa
                // bit 11 must be 1
                while ((msdec & 0x0010_0000_0000_0000) == 0)
                {
                    msdec <<= 1;
                    e2--;
                }

                // Stuff mantissa directly into double
                // (first including implicit bit)
                ()@trusted{ *cast(long *)&ldval = msdec; }();
                //Store exponent, now overwriting implicit bit
                ()@trusted{ *cast(long *)&ldval &= 0x000F_FFFF_FFFF_FFFF; }();
                ()@trusted{ *cast(long *)&ldval |= ((e2 & 0xFFFUL) << 52); }();

                import std.math : ldexp;

                // Exponent is power of 2, not power of 10
                ldval = ldexp(ldval,exp);
            }
        }
        else
            static assert(false, "Floating point format of real type not supported");

        goto L6;
    }
    else // not hex
    {
        if (toUpper(p.front) == 'N' && !startsWithZero)
        {
            // nan
            p.popFront();
            enforce(!p.empty && toUpper(p.front) == 'A',
                   new ConvException("error converting input to floating point"));
            p.popFront();
            enforce(!p.empty && toUpper(p.front) == 'N',
                   new ConvException("error converting input to floating point"));
            // skip past the last 'n'
            p.popFront();
            static if (isNarrowString!Source)
                source = cast(Source) p;
            return typeof(return).nan;
        }

        bool sawDigits = startsWithZero;

        while (!p.empty)
        {
            int i = p.front;
            while (isDigit(i))
            {
                sawDigits = true;        /* must have at least 1 digit   */
                if (msdec < (0x7FFFFFFFFFFFL-10)/10)
                    msdec = msdec * 10 + (i - '0');
                else if (msscale < (0xFFFFFFFF-10)/10)
                {
                    lsdec = lsdec * 10 + (i - '0');
                    msscale *= 10;
                }
                else
                {
                    exp++;
                }
                exp -= dot;
                p.popFront();
                if (p.empty)
                    break;
                i = p.front;
                if (i == '_')
                {
                    p.popFront();
                    if (p.empty)
                        break;
                    i = p.front;
                }
            }
            if (i == '.' && !dot)
            {
                p.popFront();
                dot++;
            }
            else
            {
                break;
            }
        }
        enforce(sawDigits, new ConvException("no digits seen"));
    }
    if (!p.empty && (p.front == 'e' || p.front == 'E'))
    {
        char sexp;
        int e;

        sexp = 0;
        p.popFront();
        enforce(!p.empty, new ConvException("Unexpected end of input"));
        switch (p.front)
        {
            case '-':    sexp++;
                         goto case;
            case '+':    p.popFront();
                         break;
            default: {}
        }
        bool sawDigits = 0;
        e = 0;
        while (!p.empty && isDigit(p.front))
        {
            if (e < 0x7FFFFFFF / 10 - 10)   // prevent integer overflow
            {
                e = e * 10 + p.front - '0';
            }
            p.popFront();
            sawDigits = 1;
        }
        exp += (sexp) ? -e : e;
        enforce(sawDigits, new ConvException("No digits seen."));
    }

    ldval = msdec;
    if (msscale != 1)               /* if stuff was accumulated in lsdec */
        ldval = ldval * msscale + lsdec;
    if (ldval)
    {
        uint u = 0;
        int pow = 4096;

        while (exp > 0)
        {
            while (exp >= pow)
            {
                ldval *= postab[u];
                exp -= pow;
            }
            pow >>= 1;
            u++;
        }
        while (exp < 0)
        {
            while (exp <= -pow)
            {
                ldval *= negtab[u];
                enforce(ldval != 0, new ConvException("Range error"));
                exp += pow;
            }
            pow >>= 1;
            u++;
        }
    }
  L6: // if overflow occurred
    enforce(ldval != HUGE_VAL, new ConvException("Range error"));

  L1:
    static if (isNarrowString!Source)
        source = cast(Source) p;
    return sign ? -ldval : ldval;
}

///
@safe unittest
{
    import std.math : approxEqual;
    auto str = "123.456";

    assert(parse!double(str).approxEqual(123.456));
}

@safe unittest
{
    import std.exception;
    import std.math : isNaN, fabs;

    // Compare reals with given precision
    bool feq(in real rx, in real ry, in real precision = 0.000001L)
    {
        if (rx == ry)
            return 1;

        if (isNaN(rx))
            return cast(bool) isNaN(ry);

        if (isNaN(ry))
            return 0;

        return cast(bool)(fabs(rx - ry) <= precision);
    }

    // Make given typed literal
    F Literal(F)(F f)
    {
        return f;
    }

    foreach (Float; AliasSeq!(float, double, real))
    {
        assert(to!Float("123") == Literal!Float(123));
        assert(to!Float("+123") == Literal!Float(+123));
        assert(to!Float("-123") == Literal!Float(-123));
        assert(to!Float("123e2") == Literal!Float(123e2));
        assert(to!Float("123e+2") == Literal!Float(123e+2));
        assert(to!Float("123e-2") == Literal!Float(123e-2));
        assert(to!Float("123.") == Literal!Float(123.0));
        assert(to!Float(".375") == Literal!Float(.375));

        assert(to!Float("1.23375E+2") == Literal!Float(1.23375E+2));

        assert(to!Float("0") is 0.0);
        assert(to!Float("-0") is -0.0);

        assert(isNaN(to!Float("nan")));

        assertThrown!ConvException(to!Float("\x00"));
    }

    // min and max
    float f = to!float("1.17549e-38");
    assert(feq(cast(real) f, cast(real) 1.17549e-38));
    assert(feq(cast(real) f, cast(real) float.min_normal));
    f = to!float("3.40282e+38");
    assert(to!string(f) == to!string(3.40282e+38));

    // min and max
    double d = to!double("2.22508e-308");
    assert(feq(cast(real) d, cast(real) 2.22508e-308));
    assert(feq(cast(real) d, cast(real) double.min_normal));
    d = to!double("1.79769e+308");
    assert(to!string(d) == to!string(1.79769e+308));
    assert(to!string(d) == to!string(double.max));

    assert(to!string(to!real(to!string(real.max / 2L))) == to!string(real.max / 2L));

    // min and max
    real r = to!real(to!string(real.min_normal));
    version(NetBSD)
    {
        // NetBSD notice
        // to!string returns 3.3621e-4932L. It is less than real.min_normal and it is subnormal value
        // Simple C code
        //     long double rd = 3.3621e-4932L;
        //     printf("%Le\n", rd);
        // has unexpected result: 1.681050e-4932
        //
        // Bug report: http://gnats.netbsd.org/cgi-bin/query-pr-single.pl?number=50937
    }
    else
    {
        assert(to!string(r) == to!string(real.min_normal));
    }
    r = to!real(to!string(real.max));
    assert(to!string(r) == to!string(real.max));
}

//Tests for the double implementation
@safe unittest
{
    static if (real.mant_dig == 53)
    {
        import core.stdc.stdlib, std.exception, std.math;

        //Should be parsed exactly: 53 bit mantissa
        string s = "0x1A_BCDE_F012_3456p10";
        auto x = parse!real(s);
        assert(x == 0x1A_BCDE_F012_3456p10L);
        //1 bit is implicit
        assert(((*cast(ulong*)&x) & 0x000F_FFFF_FFFF_FFFF) == 0xA_BCDE_F012_3456);
        assert(strtod("0x1ABCDEF0123456p10", null) == x);

        //Should be parsed exactly: 10 bit mantissa
        s = "0x3FFp10";
        x = parse!real(s);
        assert(x == 0x03FFp10);
        //1 bit is implicit
        assert(((*cast(ulong*)&x) & 0x000F_FFFF_FFFF_FFFF) == 0x000F_F800_0000_0000);
        assert(strtod("0x3FFp10", null) == x);

        //60 bit mantissa, round up
        s = "0xFFF_FFFF_FFFF_FFFFp10";
        x = parse!real(s);
        assert(approxEqual(x, 0xFFF_FFFF_FFFF_FFFFp10));
        //1 bit is implicit
        assert(((*cast(ulong*)&x) & 0x000F_FFFF_FFFF_FFFF) == 0x0000_0000_0000_0000);
        assert(strtod("0xFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFp10", null) == x);

        //60 bit mantissa, round down
        s = "0xFFF_FFFF_FFFF_FF90p10";
        x = parse!real(s);
        assert(approxEqual(x, 0xFFF_FFFF_FFFF_FF90p10));
        //1 bit is implicit
        assert(((*cast(ulong*)&x) & 0x000F_FFFF_FFFF_FFFF) == 0x000F_FFFF_FFFF_FFFF);
        assert(strtod("0xFFFFFFFFFFFFF90p10", null) == x);

        //61 bit mantissa, round up 2
        s = "0x1F0F_FFFF_FFFF_FFFFp10";
        x = parse!real(s);
        assert(approxEqual(x, 0x1F0F_FFFF_FFFF_FFFFp10));
        //1 bit is implicit
        assert(((*cast(ulong*)&x) & 0x000F_FFFF_FFFF_FFFF) == 0x000F_1000_0000_0000);
        assert(strtod("0x1F0FFFFFFFFFFFFFp10", null) == x);

        //61 bit mantissa, round down 2
        s = "0x1F0F_FFFF_FFFF_FF10p10";
        x = parse!real(s);
        assert(approxEqual(x, 0x1F0F_FFFF_FFFF_FF10p10));
        //1 bit is implicit
        assert(((*cast(ulong*)&x) & 0x000F_FFFF_FFFF_FFFF) == 0x000F_0FFF_FFFF_FFFF);
        assert(strtod("0x1F0FFFFFFFFFFF10p10", null) == x);

        //Huge exponent
        s = "0x1F_FFFF_FFFF_FFFFp900";
        x = parse!real(s);
        assert(strtod("0x1FFFFFFFFFFFFFp900", null) == x);

        //exponent too big -> converror
        s = "";
        assertThrown!ConvException(x = parse!real(s));
        assert(strtod("0x1FFFFFFFFFFFFFp1024", null) == real.infinity);

        //-exponent too big -> 0
        s = "0x1FFFFFFFFFFFFFp-2000";
        x = parse!real(s);
        assert(x == 0);
        assert(strtod("0x1FFFFFFFFFFFFFp-2000", null) == x);
    }
}

@system unittest
{
    import core.stdc.errno;
    import core.stdc.stdlib;

    errno = 0;  // In case it was set by another unittest in a different module.
    struct longdouble
    {
        static if (real.mant_dig == 64)
        {
            ushort[5] value;
        }
        else static if (real.mant_dig == 53)
        {
            ushort[4] value;
        }
        else
            static assert(false, "Not implemented");
    }

    real ld;
    longdouble x;
    real ld1;
    longdouble x1;
    int i;

    static if (real.mant_dig == 64)
        enum s = "0x1.FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFEp-16382";
    else static if (real.mant_dig == 53)
        enum s = "0x1.FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFEp-1000";
    else
        static assert(false, "Floating point format for real not supported");

    auto s2 = s.idup;
    ld = parse!real(s2);
    assert(s2.empty);
    x = *cast(longdouble *)&ld;

    static if (real.mant_dig == 64)
    {
        version (CRuntime_Microsoft)
            ld1 = 0x1.FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFEp-16382L; // strtold currently mapped to strtod
        else version (CRuntime_Bionic)
            ld1 = 0x1.FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFEp-16382L; // strtold currently mapped to strtod
        else
            ld1 = strtold(s.ptr, null);
    }
    else
        ld1 = strtold(s.ptr, null);

    x1 = *cast(longdouble *)&ld1;
    assert(x1 == x && ld1 == ld);

    assert(!errno);

    s2 = "1.0e5";
    ld = parse!real(s2);
    assert(s2.empty);
    x = *cast(longdouble *)&ld;
    ld1 = strtold("1.0e5", null);
    x1 = *cast(longdouble *)&ld1;
}

@safe pure unittest
{
    import std.exception;

    // Bugzilla 4959
    {
        auto s = "0 ";
        auto x = parse!double(s);
        assert(s == " ");
        assert(x == 0.0);
    }

    // Bugzilla 3369
    assert(to!float("inf") == float.infinity);
    assert(to!float("-inf") == -float.infinity);

    // Bugzilla 6160
    assert(6_5.536e3L == to!real("6_5.536e3"));                     // 2^16
    assert(0x1000_000_000_p10 == to!real("0x1000_000_000_p10"));    // 7.03687e+13

    // Bugzilla 6258
    assertThrown!ConvException(to!real("-"));
    assertThrown!ConvException(to!real("in"));

    // Bugzilla 7055
    assertThrown!ConvException(to!float("INF2"));

    //extra stress testing
    auto ssOK    = ["1.", "1.1.1", "1.e5", "2e1e", "2a", "2e1_1",
                    "inf", "-inf", "infa", "-infa", "inf2e2", "-inf2e2"];
    auto ssKO    = ["", " ", "2e", "2e+", "2e-", "2ee", "2e++1", "2e--1", "2e_1", "+inf"];
    foreach (s; ssOK)
        parse!double(s);
    foreach (s; ssKO)
        assertThrown!ConvException(parse!double(s));
}

/**
Parsing one character off a range returns the first element and calls `popFront`.

Params:
    Target = the type to convert to
    s = the lvalue of an $(REF_ALTTEXT input range, isInputRange, std,range,primitives)

Returns:
    A character of type `Target`

Throws:
    A $(LREF ConvException) if the range is empty.
 */
Target parse(Target, Source)(ref Source s)
if (isSomeString!Source && !is(Source == enum) &&
    staticIndexOf!(Unqual!Target, dchar, Unqual!(ElementEncodingType!Source)) >= 0)
{
    if (s.empty)
        throw convError!(Source, Target)(s);
    static if (is(Unqual!Target == dchar))
    {
        Target result = s.front;
        s.popFront();
        return result;
    }
    else
    {
        // Special case: okay so parse a Char off a Char[]
        Target result = s[0];
        s = s[1 .. $];
        return result;
    }
}

@safe pure unittest
{
    foreach (Str; AliasSeq!(string, wstring, dstring))
    {
        foreach (Char; AliasSeq!(char, wchar, dchar))
        {
            static if (is(Unqual!Char == dchar) ||
                       Char.sizeof == ElementEncodingType!Str.sizeof)
            {
                Str s = "aaa";
                assert(parse!Char(s) == 'a');
                assert(s == "aa");
            }
        }
    }
}

/// ditto
Target parse(Target, Source)(ref Source s)
if (!isSomeString!Source && isInputRange!Source && isSomeChar!(ElementType!Source) &&
    isSomeChar!Target && Target.sizeof >= ElementType!Source.sizeof && !is(Target == enum))
{
    if (s.empty)
        throw convError!(Source, Target)(s);
    Target result = s.front;
    s.popFront();
    return result;
}

///
@safe pure unittest
{
    auto s = "Hello, World!";
    char first = parse!char(s);
    assert(first == 'H');
    assert(s == "ello, World!");
}


/*
    Tests for to!bool and parse!bool
*/
@safe pure unittest
{
    import std.exception;

    assert(to!bool("TruE") == true);
    assert(to!bool("faLse"d) == false);
    assertThrown!ConvException(to!bool("maybe"));

    auto t = "TrueType";
    assert(parse!bool(t) == true);
    assert(t == "Type");

    auto f = "False killer whale"d;
    assert(parse!bool(f) == false);
    assert(f == " killer whale"d);

    auto m = "maybe";
    assertThrown!ConvException(parse!bool(m));
    assert(m == "maybe");  // m shouldn't change on failure

    auto s = "true";
    auto b = parse!(const(bool))(s);
    assert(b == true);
}

/**
Parsing a character range to `typeof(null)` returns `null` if the range
spells `"null"`. This function is case insensitive.

Params:
    Target = the type to convert to
    s = the lvalue of an $(REF_ALTTEXT input range, isInputRange, std,range,primitives)

Returns:
    `null`

Throws:
    A $(LREF ConvException) if the range doesn't represent `null`.
 */
Target parse(Target, Source)(ref Source s)
if (isInputRange!Source &&
    isSomeChar!(ElementType!Source) &&
    is(Unqual!Target == typeof(null)))
{
    import std.ascii : toLower;
    foreach (c; "null")
    {
        if (s.empty || toLower(s.front) != c)
            throw parseError("null should be case-insensitive 'null'");
        s.popFront();
    }
    return null;
}

///
@safe pure unittest
{
    import std.exception : assertThrown;

    alias NullType = typeof(null);
    auto s1 = "null";
    assert(parse!NullType(s1) is null);
    assert(s1 == "");

    auto s2 = "NUll"d;
    assert(parse!NullType(s2) is null);
    assert(s2 == "");

    auto m = "maybe";
    assertThrown!ConvException(parse!NullType(m));
    assert(m == "maybe");  // m shouldn't change on failure

    auto s = "NULL";
    assert(parse!(const NullType)(s) is null);
}

//Used internally by parse Array/AA, to remove ascii whites
package void skipWS(R)(ref R r)
{
    import std.ascii : isWhite;
    static if (isSomeString!R)
    {
        //Implementation inspired from stripLeft.
        foreach (i, c; r)
        {
            if (!isWhite(c))
            {
                r = r[i .. $];
                return;
            }
        }
        r = r[0 .. 0]; //Empty string with correct type.
        return;
    }
    else
    {
        for (; !r.empty && isWhite(r.front); r.popFront())
        {}
    }
}

/**
 * Parses an array from a string given the left bracket (default $(D
 * '[')), right bracket (default $(D ']')), and element separator (by
 * default $(D ',')). A trailing separator is allowed.
 *
 * Params:
 *     s = The string to parse
 *     lbracket = the character that starts the array
 *     rbracket = the character that ends the array
 *     comma = the character that separates the elements of the array
 *
 * Returns:
 *     An array of type `Target`
 */
Target parse(Target, Source)(ref Source s, dchar lbracket = '[', dchar rbracket = ']', dchar comma = ',')
if (isSomeString!Source && !is(Source == enum) &&
    isDynamicArray!Target && !is(Target == enum))
{
    import std.array : appender;

    auto result = appender!Target();

    parseCheck!s(lbracket);
    skipWS(s);
    if (s.empty)
        throw convError!(Source, Target)(s);
    if (s.front == rbracket)
    {
        s.popFront();
        return result.data;
    }
    for (;; s.popFront(), skipWS(s))
    {
        if (!s.empty && s.front == rbracket)
            break;
        result ~= parseElement!(ElementType!Target)(s);
        skipWS(s);
        if (s.empty)
            throw convError!(Source, Target)(s);
        if (s.front != comma)
            break;
    }
    parseCheck!s(rbracket);

    return result.data;
}

///
@safe pure unittest
{
    auto s1 = `[['h', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o'], "world"]`;
    auto a1 = parse!(string[])(s1);
    assert(a1 == ["hello", "world"]);

    auto s2 = `["aaa", "bbb", "ccc"]`;
    auto a2 = parse!(string[])(s2);
    assert(a2 == ["aaa", "bbb", "ccc"]);
}

@safe unittest // Bugzilla 9615
{
    string s0 = "[1,2, ]";
    string s1 = "[1,2, \t\v\r\n]";
    string s2 = "[1,2]";
    assert(s0.parse!(int[]) == [1,2]);
    assert(s1.parse!(int[]) == [1,2]);
    assert(s2.parse!(int[]) == [1,2]);

    string s3 = `["a","b",]`;
    string s4 = `["a","b"]`;
    assert(s3.parse!(string[]) == ["a","b"]);
    assert(s4.parse!(string[]) == ["a","b"]);

    import std.exception : assertThrown;
    string s5 = "[,]";
    string s6 = "[, \t,]";
    assertThrown!ConvException(parse!(string[])(s5));
    assertThrown!ConvException(parse!(int[])(s6));
}

@safe unittest
{
    int[] a = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5];
    auto s = to!string(a);
    assert(to!(int[])(s) == a);
}

@safe unittest
{
    int[][] a = [ [1, 2] , [3], [4, 5] ];
    auto s = to!string(a);
    assert(to!(int[][])(s) == a);
}

@safe unittest
{
    int[][][] ia = [ [[1,2],[3,4],[5]] , [[6],[],[7,8,9]] , [[]] ];

    char[] s = to!(char[])(ia);
    int[][][] ia2;

    ia2 = to!(typeof(ia2))(s);
    assert( ia == ia2);
}

@safe pure unittest
{
    import std.exception;

    //Check proper failure
    auto s = "[ 1 , 2 , 3 ]";
    foreach (i ; 0 .. s.length-1)
    {
        auto ss = s[0 .. i];
        assertThrown!ConvException(parse!(int[])(ss));
    }
    int[] arr = parse!(int[])(s);
}

@safe pure unittest
{
    //Checks parsing of strings with escaped characters
    string s1 = `[
        "Contains a\0null!",
        "tab\there",
        "line\nbreak",
        "backslash \\ slash / question \?",
        "number \x35 five",
        "unicode \u65E5 sun",
        "very long \U000065E5 sun"
    ]`;

    //Note: escaped characters purposefully replaced and isolated to guarantee
    //there are no typos in the escape syntax
    string[] s2 = [
        "Contains a" ~ '\0' ~ "null!",
        "tab" ~ '\t' ~ "here",
        "line" ~ '\n' ~ "break",
        "backslash " ~ '\\' ~ " slash / question ?",
        "number 5 five",
        "unicode 日 sun",
        "very long 日 sun"
    ];
    assert(s2 == parse!(string[])(s1));
    assert(s1.empty);
}

/// ditto
Target parse(Target, Source)(ref Source s, dchar lbracket = '[', dchar rbracket = ']', dchar comma = ',')
if (isExactSomeString!Source &&
    isStaticArray!Target && !is(Target == enum))
{
    static if (hasIndirections!Target)
        Target result = Target.init[0].init;
    else
        Target result = void;

    parseCheck!s(lbracket);
    skipWS(s);
    if (s.empty)
        throw convError!(Source, Target)(s);
    if (s.front == rbracket)
    {
        static if (result.length != 0)
            goto Lmanyerr;
        else
        {
            s.popFront();
            return result;
        }
    }
    for (size_t i = 0; ; s.popFront(), skipWS(s))
    {
        if (i == result.length)
            goto Lmanyerr;
        result[i++] = parseElement!(ElementType!Target)(s);
        skipWS(s);
        if (s.empty)
            throw convError!(Source, Target)(s);
        if (s.front != comma)
        {
            if (i != result.length)
                goto Lfewerr;
            break;
        }
    }
    parseCheck!s(rbracket);

    return result;

Lmanyerr:
    throw parseError(text("Too many elements in input, ", result.length, " elements expected."));

Lfewerr:
    throw parseError(text("Too few elements in input, ", result.length, " elements expected."));
}

@safe pure unittest
{
    import std.exception;

    auto s1 = "[1,2,3,4]";
    auto sa1 = parse!(int[4])(s1);
    assert(sa1 == [1,2,3,4]);

    auto s2 = "[[1],[2,3],[4]]";
    auto sa2 = parse!(int[][3])(s2);
    assert(sa2 == [[1],[2,3],[4]]);

    auto s3 = "[1,2,3]";
    assertThrown!ConvException(parse!(int[4])(s3));

    auto s4 = "[1,2,3,4,5]";
    assertThrown!ConvException(parse!(int[4])(s4));
}

/**
 * Parses an associative array from a string given the left bracket (default $(D
 * '[')), right bracket (default $(D ']')), key-value separator (default $(D
 * ':')), and element seprator (by default $(D ',')).
 *
 * Params:
 *     s = the string to parse
 *     lbracket = the character that starts the associative array
 *     rbracket = the character that ends the associative array
 *     keyval = the character that associates the key with the value
 *     comma = the character that separates the elements of the associative array
 *
 * Returns:
 *     An associative array of type `Target`
 */
Target parse(Target, Source)(ref Source s, dchar lbracket = '[',
                             dchar rbracket = ']', dchar keyval = ':', dchar comma = ',')
if (isSomeString!Source && !is(Source == enum) &&
    isAssociativeArray!Target && !is(Target == enum))
{
    alias KeyType = typeof(Target.init.keys[0]);
    alias ValType = typeof(Target.init.values[0]);

    Target result;

    parseCheck!s(lbracket);
    skipWS(s);
    if (s.empty)
        throw convError!(Source, Target)(s);
    if (s.front == rbracket)
    {
        s.popFront();
        return result;
    }
    for (;; s.popFront(), skipWS(s))
    {
        auto key = parseElement!KeyType(s);
        skipWS(s);
        parseCheck!s(keyval);
        skipWS(s);
        auto val = parseElement!ValType(s);
        skipWS(s);
        result[key] = val;
        if (s.empty)
            throw convError!(Source, Target)(s);
        if (s.front != comma)
            break;
    }
    parseCheck!s(rbracket);

    return result;
}

///
@safe pure unittest
{
    auto s1 = "[1:10, 2:20, 3:30]";
    auto aa1 = parse!(int[int])(s1);
    assert(aa1 == [1:10, 2:20, 3:30]);

    auto s2 = `["aaa":10, "bbb":20, "ccc":30]`;
    auto aa2 = parse!(int[string])(s2);
    assert(aa2 == ["aaa":10, "bbb":20, "ccc":30]);

    auto s3 = `["aaa":[1], "bbb":[2,3], "ccc":[4,5,6]]`;
    auto aa3 = parse!(int[][string])(s3);
    assert(aa3 == ["aaa":[1], "bbb":[2,3], "ccc":[4,5,6]]);
}

@safe pure unittest
{
    import std.exception;

    //Check proper failure
    auto s = "[1:10, 2:20, 3:30]";
    foreach (i ; 0 .. s.length-1)
    {
        auto ss = s[0 .. i];
        assertThrown!ConvException(parse!(int[int])(ss));
    }
    int[int] aa = parse!(int[int])(s);
}

private dchar parseEscape(Source)(ref Source s)
if (isInputRange!Source && isSomeChar!(ElementType!Source))
{
    parseCheck!s('\\');
    if (s.empty)
        throw parseError("Unterminated escape sequence");

    dchar getHexDigit()(ref Source s_ = s)  // workaround
    {
        import std.ascii : isAlpha, isHexDigit;
        if (s_.empty)
            throw parseError("Unterminated escape sequence");
        s_.popFront();
        if (s_.empty)
            throw parseError("Unterminated escape sequence");
        dchar c = s_.front;
        if (!isHexDigit(c))
            throw parseError("Hex digit is missing");
        return isAlpha(c) ? ((c & ~0x20) - ('A' - 10)) : c - '0';
    }

    dchar result;

    switch (s.front)
    {
        case '"':   result = '\"';  break;
        case '\'':  result = '\'';  break;
        case '0':   result = '\0';  break;
        case '?':   result = '\?';  break;
        case '\\':  result = '\\';  break;
        case 'a':   result = '\a';  break;
        case 'b':   result = '\b';  break;
        case 'f':   result = '\f';  break;
        case 'n':   result = '\n';  break;
        case 'r':   result = '\r';  break;
        case 't':   result = '\t';  break;
        case 'v':   result = '\v';  break;
        case 'x':
            result  = getHexDigit() << 4;
            result |= getHexDigit();
            break;
        case 'u':
            result  = getHexDigit() << 12;
            result |= getHexDigit() << 8;
            result |= getHexDigit() << 4;
            result |= getHexDigit();
            break;
        case 'U':
            result  = getHexDigit() << 28;
            result |= getHexDigit() << 24;
            result |= getHexDigit() << 20;
            result |= getHexDigit() << 16;
            result |= getHexDigit() << 12;
            result |= getHexDigit() << 8;
            result |= getHexDigit() << 4;
            result |= getHexDigit();
            break;
        default:
            throw parseError("Unknown escape character " ~ to!string(s.front));
    }
    if (s.empty)
        throw parseError("Unterminated escape sequence");

    s.popFront();

    return result;
}

@safe pure unittest
{
    string[] s1 = [
        `\"`, `\'`, `\?`, `\\`, `\a`, `\b`, `\f`, `\n`, `\r`, `\t`, `\v`, //Normal escapes
        //`\141`, //@@@9621@@@ Octal escapes.
        `\x61`,
        `\u65E5`, `\U00012456`
        //`\&amp;`, `\&quot;`, //@@@9621@@@ Named Character Entities.
    ];

    const(dchar)[] s2 = [
        '\"', '\'', '\?', '\\', '\a', '\b', '\f', '\n', '\r', '\t', '\v', //Normal escapes
        //'\141', //@@@9621@@@ Octal escapes.
        '\x61',
        '\u65E5', '\U00012456'
        //'\&amp;', '\&quot;', //@@@9621@@@ Named Character Entities.
    ];

    foreach (i ; 0 .. s1.length)
    {
        assert(s2[i] == parseEscape(s1[i]));
        assert(s1[i].empty);
    }
}

@safe pure unittest
{
    import std.exception;

    string[] ss = [
        `hello!`,  //Not an escape
        `\`,       //Premature termination
        `\/`,      //Not an escape
        `\gggg`,   //Not an escape
        `\xzz`,    //Not an hex
        `\x0`,     //Premature hex end
        `\XB9`,    //Not legal hex syntax
        `\u!!`,    //Not a unicode hex
        `\777`,    //Octal is larger than a byte //Note: Throws, but simply because octals are unsupported
        `\u123`,   //Premature hex end
        `\U123123` //Premature hex end
    ];
    foreach (s ; ss)
        assertThrown!ConvException(parseEscape(s));
}

// Undocumented
Target parseElement(Target, Source)(ref Source s)
if (isInputRange!Source && isSomeChar!(ElementType!Source) && !is(Source == enum) &&
    isExactSomeString!Target)
{
    import std.array : appender;
    auto result = appender!Target();

    // parse array of chars
    if (s.empty)
        throw convError!(Source, Target)(s);
    if (s.front == '[')
        return parse!Target(s);

    parseCheck!s('\"');
    if (s.empty)
        throw convError!(Source, Target)(s);
    if (s.front == '\"')
    {
        s.popFront();
        return result.data;
    }
    while (true)
    {
        if (s.empty)
            throw parseError("Unterminated quoted string");
        switch (s.front)
        {
            case '\"':
                s.popFront();
                return result.data;
            case '\\':
                result.put(parseEscape(s));
                break;
            default:
                result.put(s.front);
                s.popFront();
                break;
        }
    }
    assert(0);
}

// ditto
Target parseElement(Target, Source)(ref Source s)
if (isInputRange!Source && isSomeChar!(ElementType!Source) && !is(Source == enum) &&
    isSomeChar!Target && !is(Target == enum))
{
    Target c;

    parseCheck!s('\'');
    if (s.empty)
        throw convError!(Source, Target)(s);
    if (s.front != '\\')
    {
        c = s.front;
        s.popFront();
    }
    else
        c = parseEscape(s);
    parseCheck!s('\'');

    return c;
}

// ditto
Target parseElement(Target, Source)(ref Source s)
if (isInputRange!Source && isSomeChar!(ElementType!Source) &&
    !isSomeString!Target && !isSomeChar!Target)
{
    return parse!Target(s);
}


/***************************************************************
 * Convenience functions for converting one or more arguments
 * of any type into _text (the three character widths).
 */
string text(T...)(T args)
if (T.length > 0) { return textImpl!string(args); }

// @@@DEPRECATED_2017-06@@@
deprecated("Calling `text` with 0 arguments is deprecated")
string text(T...)(T args)
if (T.length == 0) { return textImpl!string(args); }

///ditto
wstring wtext(T...)(T args)
if (T.length > 0) { return textImpl!wstring(args); }

// @@@DEPRECATED_2017-06@@@
deprecated("Calling `wtext` with 0 arguments is deprecated")
wstring wtext(T...)(T args)
if (T.length == 0) { return textImpl!wstring(args); }

///ditto
dstring dtext(T...)(T args)
if (T.length > 0) { return textImpl!dstring(args); }

///
@safe unittest
{
    assert( text(42, ' ', 1.5, ": xyz") == "42 1.5: xyz"c);
    assert(wtext(42, ' ', 1.5, ": xyz") == "42 1.5: xyz"w);
    assert(dtext(42, ' ', 1.5, ": xyz") == "42 1.5: xyz"d);
}

// @@@DEPRECATED_2017-06@@@
deprecated("Calling `dtext` with 0 arguments is deprecated")
dstring dtext(T...)(T args)
if (T.length == 0) { return textImpl!dstring(args); }

private S textImpl(S, U...)(U args)
{
    static if (U.length == 0)
    {
        return null;
    }
    else static if (U.length == 1)
    {
        return to!S(args[0]);
    }
    else
    {
        import std.array : appender;

        auto app = appender!S();

        // assume that on average, parameters will have less
        // than 20 elements
        app.reserve(U.length * 20);

        foreach (arg; args)
        {
            static if (
                is(Unqual!(typeof(arg)) == uint) || is(Unqual!(typeof(arg)) == ulong) ||
                is(Unqual!(typeof(arg)) == int) || is(Unqual!(typeof(arg)) == long)
            )
                app.put(arg.toChars);
            else
                app.put(to!S(arg));
        }

        return app.data;
    }
}


/***************************************************************
The $(D octal) facility provides a means to declare a number in base 8.
Using $(D octal!177) or $(D octal!"177") for 127 represented in octal
(same as 0177 in C).

The rules for strings are the usual for literals: If it can fit in an
$(D int), it is an $(D int). Otherwise, it is a $(D long). But, if the
user specifically asks for a $(D long) with the $(D L) suffix, always
give the $(D long). Give an unsigned iff it is asked for with the $(D
U) or $(D u) suffix. _Octals created from integers preserve the type
of the passed-in integral.

See_Also:
    $(LREF parse) for parsing octal strings at runtime.
 */
template octal(string num)
if (isOctalLiteral(num))
{
    static if ((octalFitsInInt!num && !literalIsLong!num) && !literalIsUnsigned!num)
        enum octal = octal!int(num);
    else static if ((!octalFitsInInt!num || literalIsLong!num) && !literalIsUnsigned!num)
        enum octal = octal!long(num);
    else static if ((octalFitsInInt!num && !literalIsLong!num) && literalIsUnsigned!num)
        enum octal = octal!uint(num);
    else static if ((!octalFitsInInt!(num) || literalIsLong!(num)) && literalIsUnsigned!(num))
        enum octal = octal!ulong(num);
    else
        static assert(false);
}

/// Ditto
template octal(alias decimalInteger)
if (isIntegral!(typeof(decimalInteger)))
{
    enum octal = octal!(typeof(decimalInteger))(to!string(decimalInteger));
}

///
@safe unittest
{
    // same as 0177
    auto x = octal!177;
    // octal is a compile-time device
    enum y = octal!160;
    // Create an unsigned octal
    auto z = octal!"1_000_000u";
}

/*
    Takes a string, num, which is an octal literal, and returns its
    value, in the type T specified.
*/
private T octal(T)(const string num)
{
    assert(isOctalLiteral(num));

    ulong pow = 1;
    T value = 0;

    foreach_reverse (immutable pos; 0 .. num.length)
    {
        char s = num[pos];
        if (s < '0' || s > '7') // we only care about digits; skip the rest
        // safe to skip - this is checked out in the assert so these
        // are just suffixes
            continue;

        value += pow * (s - '0');
        pow *= 8;
    }

    return value;
}

@system unittest
{
    int a = octal!int("10");
    assert(a == 8);
}

/*
Take a look at int.max and int.max+1 in octal and the logic for this
function follows directly.
 */
private template octalFitsInInt(string octalNum)
{
    // note it is important to strip the literal of all
    // non-numbers. kill the suffix and underscores lest they mess up
    // the number of digits here that we depend on.
    enum bool octalFitsInInt = strippedOctalLiteral(octalNum).length < 11 ||
        strippedOctalLiteral(octalNum).length == 11 &&
        strippedOctalLiteral(octalNum)[0] == '1';
}

private string strippedOctalLiteral(string original)
{
    string stripped = "";
    foreach (c; original)
        if (c >= '0' && c <= '7')
            stripped ~= c;
    return stripped;
}

private template literalIsLong(string num)
{
    static if (num.length > 1)
    // can be xxL or xxLu according to spec
        enum literalIsLong = (num[$-1] == 'L' || num[$-2] == 'L');
    else
        enum literalIsLong = false;
}

private template literalIsUnsigned(string num)
{
    static if (num.length > 1)
    // can be xxU or xxUL according to spec
        enum literalIsUnsigned = (num[$-1] == 'u' || num[$-2] == 'u')
            // both cases are allowed too
            || (num[$-1] == 'U' || num[$-2] == 'U');
    else
        enum literalIsUnsigned = false;
}

/*
Returns if the given string is a correctly formatted octal literal.

The format is specified in spec/lex.html. The leading zero is allowed, but
not required.
 */
@safe pure nothrow @nogc
private bool isOctalLiteral(const string num)
{
    if (num.length == 0)
        return false;

    // Must start with a number. To avoid confusion, literals that
    // start with a '0' are not allowed
    if (num[0] == '0' && num.length > 1)
        return false;
    if (num[0] < '0' || num[0] > '7')
        return false;

    foreach (i, c; num)
    {
        if ((c < '0' || c > '7') && c != '_') // not a legal character
        {
            if (i < num.length - 2)
                    return false;
            else   // gotta check for those suffixes
            {
                if (c != 'U' && c != 'u' && c != 'L')
                        return false;
                if (i != num.length - 1)
                {
                    // if we're not the last one, the next one must
                    // also be a suffix to be valid
                    char c2 = num[$-1];
                    if (c2 != 'U' && c2 != 'u' && c2 != 'L')
                        return false; // spam at the end of the string
                    if (c2 == c)
                        return false; // repeats are disallowed
                }
            }
        }
    }

    return true;
}

@safe unittest
{
    // ensure that you get the right types, even with embedded underscores
    auto w = octal!"100_000_000_000";
    static assert(!is(typeof(w) == int));
    auto w2 = octal!"1_000_000_000";
    static assert(is(typeof(w2) == int));

    static assert(octal!"45" == 37);
    static assert(octal!"0" == 0);
    static assert(octal!"7" == 7);
    static assert(octal!"10" == 8);
    static assert(octal!"666" == 438);

    static assert(octal!45 == 37);
    static assert(octal!0 == 0);
    static assert(octal!7 == 7);
    static assert(octal!10 == 8);
    static assert(octal!666 == 438);

    static assert(octal!"66_6" == 438);

    static assert(octal!2520046213 == 356535435);
    static assert(octal!"2520046213" == 356535435);

    static assert(octal!17777777777 == int.max);

    static assert(!__traits(compiles, octal!823));

    static assert(!__traits(compiles, octal!"823"));

    static assert(!__traits(compiles, octal!"_823"));
    static assert(!__traits(compiles, octal!"spam"));
    static assert(!__traits(compiles, octal!"77%"));

    static assert(is(typeof(octal!"17777777777") == int));
    static assert(octal!"17777777777" == int.max);

    static assert(is(typeof(octal!"20000000000U") == ulong)); // Shouldn't this be uint?
    static assert(octal!"20000000000" == uint(int.max) + 1);

    static assert(is(typeof(octal!"777777777777777777777") == long));
    static assert(octal!"777777777777777777777" == long.max);

    static assert(is(typeof(octal!"1000000000000000000000U") == ulong));
    static assert(octal!"1000000000000000000000" == ulong(long.max) + 1);

    int a;
    long b;

    // biggest value that should fit in an it
    a = octal!"17777777777";
    assert(a == int.max);
    // should not fit in the int
    static assert(!__traits(compiles, a = octal!"20000000000"));
    // ... but should fit in a long
    b = octal!"20000000000";
    assert(b == 1L + int.max);

    b = octal!"1L";
    assert(b == 1);
    b = octal!1L;
    assert(b == 1);
}

/+
emplaceRef is a package function for phobos internal use. It works like
emplace, but takes its argument by ref (as opposed to "by pointer").

This makes it easier to use, easier to be safe, and faster in a non-inline
build.

Furthermore, emplaceRef optionally takes a type paremeter, which specifies
the type we want to build. This helps to build qualified objects on mutable
buffer, without breaking the type system with unsafe casts.
+/
package void emplaceRef(T, UT, Args...)(ref UT chunk, auto ref Args args)
{
    static if (args.length == 0)
    {
        static assert(is(typeof({static T i;})),
            convFormat("Cannot emplace a %1$s because %1$s.this() is annotated with @disable.", T.stringof));
        static if (is(T == class)) static assert(!isAbstractClass!T,
            T.stringof ~ " is abstract and it can't be emplaced");
        emplaceInitializer(chunk);
    }
    else static if (
        !is(T == struct) && Args.length == 1 /* primitives, enums, arrays */
        ||
        Args.length == 1 && is(typeof({T t = args[0];})) /* conversions */
        ||
        is(typeof(T(args))) /* general constructors */)
    {
        static struct S
        {
            T payload;
            this(ref Args x)
            {
                static if (Args.length == 1)
                    static if (is(typeof(payload = x[0])))
                        payload = x[0];
                    else
                        payload = T(x[0]);
                else
                    payload = T(x);
            }
        }
        if (__ctfe)
        {
            static if (is(typeof(chunk = T(args))))
                chunk = T(args);
            else static if (args.length == 1 && is(typeof(chunk = args[0])))
                chunk = args[0];
            else assert(0, "CTFE emplace doesn't support "
                ~ T.stringof ~ " from " ~ Args.stringof);
        }
        else
        {
            S* p = () @trusted { return cast(S*) &chunk; }();
            emplaceInitializer(*p);
            p.__ctor(args);
        }
    }
    else static if (is(typeof(chunk.__ctor(args))))
    {
        // This catches the rare case of local types that keep a frame pointer
        emplaceInitializer(chunk);
        chunk.__ctor(args);
    }
    else
    {
        //We can't emplace. Try to diagnose a disabled postblit.
        static assert(!(Args.length == 1 && is(Args[0] : T)),
            convFormat("Cannot emplace a %1$s because %1$s.this(this) is annotated with @disable.", T.stringof));

        //We can't emplace.
        static assert(false,
            convFormat("%s cannot be emplaced from %s.", T.stringof, Args[].stringof));
    }
}
// ditto
package void emplaceRef(UT, Args...)(ref UT chunk, auto ref Args args)
if (is(UT == Unqual!UT))
{
    emplaceRef!(UT, UT)(chunk, args);
}

//emplace helper functions
private void emplaceInitializer(T)(ref T chunk) @trusted pure nothrow
{
    static if (!hasElaborateAssign!T && isAssignable!T)
        chunk = T.init;
    else
    {
        import core.stdc.string : memcpy;
        static immutable T init = T.init;
        memcpy(&chunk, &init, T.sizeof);
    }
}

// emplace
/**
Given a pointer $(D chunk) to uninitialized memory (but already typed
as $(D T)), constructs an object of non-$(D class) type $(D T) at that
address. If `T` is a class, initializes the class reference to null.

Returns: A pointer to the newly constructed object (which is the same
as $(D chunk)).
 */
T* emplace(T)(T* chunk) @safe pure nothrow
{
    emplaceRef!T(*chunk);
    return chunk;
}

///
@system unittest
{
    static struct S
    {
        int i = 42;
    }
    S[2] s2 = void;
    emplace(&s2);
    assert(s2[0].i == 42 && s2[1].i == 42);
}

///
@system unittest
{
    interface I {}
    class K : I {}

    K k = void;
    emplace(&k);
    assert(k is null);

    I i = void;
    emplace(&i);
    assert(i is null);
}

/**
Given a pointer $(D chunk) to uninitialized memory (but already typed
as a non-class type $(D T)), constructs an object of type $(D T) at
that address from arguments $(D args). If `T` is a class, initializes
the class reference to `args[0]`.

This function can be $(D @trusted) if the corresponding constructor of
$(D T) is $(D @safe).

Returns: A pointer to the newly constructed object (which is the same
as $(D chunk)).
 */
T* emplace(T, Args...)(T* chunk, auto ref Args args)
if (is(T == struct) || Args.length == 1)
{
    emplaceRef!T(*chunk, args);
    return chunk;
}

///
@system unittest
{
    int a;
    int b = 42;
    assert(*emplace!int(&a, b) == 42);
}

@system unittest
{
    shared int i;
    emplace(&i, 42);
    assert(i == 42);
}

private void testEmplaceChunk(void[] chunk, size_t typeSize, size_t typeAlignment, string typeName) @nogc pure nothrow
{
    assert(chunk.length >= typeSize, "emplace: Chunk size too small.");
    assert((cast(size_t) chunk.ptr) % typeAlignment == 0, "emplace: Chunk is not aligned.");
}

/**
Given a raw memory area $(D chunk), constructs an object of $(D class)
type $(D T) at that address. The constructor is passed the arguments
$(D Args).

If `T` is an inner class whose `outer` field can be used to access an instance
of the enclosing class, then `Args` must not be empty, and the first member of it
must be a valid initializer for that `outer` field. Correct initialization of
this field is essential to access members of the outer class inside `T` methods.

Preconditions:
$(D chunk) must be at least as large as $(D T) needs
and should have an alignment multiple of $(D T)'s alignment. (The size
of a $(D class) instance is obtained by using $(D
__traits(classInstanceSize, T))).

Note:
This function can be $(D @trusted) if the corresponding constructor of
$(D T) is $(D @safe).

Returns: The newly constructed object.
 */
T emplace(T, Args...)(void[] chunk, auto ref Args args)
if (is(T == class))
{
    static assert(!isAbstractClass!T, T.stringof ~
        " is abstract and it can't be emplaced");

    enum classSize = __traits(classInstanceSize, T);
    testEmplaceChunk(chunk, classSize, classInstanceAlignment!T, T.stringof);
    auto result = cast(T) chunk.ptr;

    // Initialize the object in its pre-ctor state
    chunk[0 .. classSize] = typeid(T).initializer[];

    static if (isInnerClass!T)
    {
        static assert(Args.length > 0,
            "Initializing an inner class requires a pointer to the outer class");
        static assert(is(Args[0] : typeof(T.outer)),
            "The first argument must be a pointer to the outer class");

        result.outer = args[0];
        alias args1 = args[1..$];
    }
    else alias args1 = args;

    // Call the ctor if any
    static if (is(typeof(result.__ctor(args1))))
    {
        // T defines a genuine constructor accepting args
        // Go the classic route: write .init first, then call ctor
        result.__ctor(args1);
    }
    else
    {
        static assert(args1.length == 0 && !is(typeof(&T.__ctor)),
            "Don't know how to initialize an object of type "
            ~ T.stringof ~ " with arguments " ~ typeof(args1).stringof);
    }
    return result;
}

///
@system unittest
{
    static class C
    {
        int i;
        this(int i){this.i = i;}
    }
    auto buf = new void[__traits(classInstanceSize, C)];
    auto c = emplace!C(buf, 5);
    assert(c.i == 5);
}

@system unittest
{
    class Outer
    {
        int i = 3;
        class Inner
        {
            auto getI() { return i; }
        }
    }
    auto outerBuf = new void[__traits(classInstanceSize, Outer)];
    auto innerBuf = new void[__traits(classInstanceSize, Outer.Inner)];
    auto inner = innerBuf.emplace!(Outer.Inner)(outerBuf.emplace!Outer);
    assert(inner.getI == 3);
}

@nogc pure nothrow @system unittest
{
    int var = 6;
    align(__conv_EmplaceTestClass.alignof) ubyte[__traits(classInstanceSize, __conv_EmplaceTestClass)] buf;
    auto k = emplace!__conv_EmplaceTestClass(buf, 5, var);
    assert(k.i == 5);
    assert(var == 7);
}

/**
Given a raw memory area $(D chunk), constructs an object of non-$(D
class) type $(D T) at that address. The constructor is passed the
arguments $(D args), if any.

Preconditions:
$(D chunk) must be at least as large
as $(D T) needs and should have an alignment multiple of $(D T)'s
alignment.

Note:
This function can be $(D @trusted) if the corresponding constructor of
$(D T) is $(D @safe).

Returns: A pointer to the newly constructed object.
 */
T* emplace(T, Args...)(void[] chunk, auto ref Args args)
if (!is(T == class))
{
    testEmplaceChunk(chunk, T.sizeof, T.alignof, T.stringof);
    emplaceRef!(T, Unqual!T)(*cast(Unqual!T*) chunk.ptr, args);
    return cast(T*) chunk.ptr;
}

///
@system unittest
{
    struct S
    {
        int a, b;
    }
    auto buf = new void[S.sizeof];
    S s;
    s.a = 42;
    s.b = 43;
    auto s1 = emplace!S(buf, s);
    assert(s1.a == 42 && s1.b == 43);
}

// Bulk of emplace unittests starts here

@system unittest /* unions */
{
    static union U
    {
        string a;
        int b;
        struct
        {
            long c;
            int[] d;
        }
    }
    U u1 = void;
    U u2 = { "hello" };
    emplace(&u1, u2);
    assert(u1.a == "hello");
}

version(unittest) private struct __conv_EmplaceTest
{
    int i = 3;
    this(int i)
    {
        assert(this.i == 3 && i == 5);
        this.i = i;
    }
    this(int i, ref int j)
    {
        assert(i == 5 && j == 6);
        this.i = i;
        ++j;
    }

@disable:
    this();
    this(this);
    void opAssign();
}

version(unittest) private class __conv_EmplaceTestClass
{
    int i = 3;
    this(int i) @nogc @safe pure nothrow
    {
        assert(this.i == 3 && i == 5);
        this.i = i;
    }
    this(int i, ref int j) @nogc @safe pure nothrow
    {
        assert(i == 5 && j == 6);
        this.i = i;
        ++j;
    }
}

@system unittest // bugzilla 15772
{
    abstract class Foo {}
    class Bar: Foo {}
    void[] memory;
    // test in emplaceInitializer
    static assert(!is(typeof(emplace!Foo(cast(Foo*) memory.ptr))));
    static assert( is(typeof(emplace!Bar(cast(Bar*) memory.ptr))));
    // test in the emplace overload that takes void[]
    static assert(!is(typeof(emplace!Foo(memory))));
    static assert( is(typeof(emplace!Bar(memory))));
}

@system unittest
{
    struct S { @disable this(); }
    S s = void;
    static assert(!__traits(compiles, emplace(&s)));
    emplace(&s, S.init);
}

@system unittest
{
    struct S1
    {}

    struct S2
    {
        void opAssign(S2);
    }

    S1 s1 = void;
    S2 s2 = void;
    S1[2] as1 = void;
    S2[2] as2 = void;
    emplace(&s1);
    emplace(&s2);
    emplace(&as1);
    emplace(&as2);
}

@system unittest
{
    static struct S1
    {
        this(this) @disable;
    }
    static struct S2
    {
        this() @disable;
    }
    S1[2] ss1 = void;
    S2[2] ss2 = void;
    emplace(&ss1);
    static assert(!__traits(compiles, emplace(&ss2)));
    S1 s1 = S1.init;
    S2 s2 = S2.init;
    static assert(!__traits(compiles, emplace(&ss1, s1)));
    emplace(&ss2, s2);
}

@system unittest
{
    struct S
    {
        immutable int i;
    }
    S s = void;
    S[2] ss1 = void;
    S[2] ss2 = void;
    emplace(&s, 5);
    assert(s.i == 5);
    emplace(&ss1, s);
    assert(ss1[0].i == 5 && ss1[1].i == 5);
    emplace(&ss2, ss1);
    assert(ss2 == ss1);
}

//Start testing emplace-args here

@system unittest
{
    interface I {}
    class K : I {}

    K k = null, k2 = new K;
    assert(k !is k2);
    emplace!K(&k, k2);
    assert(k is k2);

    I i = null;
    assert(i !is k);
    emplace!I(&i, k);
    assert(i is k);
}

@system unittest
{
    static struct S
    {
        int i = 5;
        void opAssign(S){assert(0);}
    }
    S[2] sa = void;
    S[2] sb;
    emplace(&sa, sb);
    assert(sa[0].i == 5 && sa[1].i == 5);
}

//Start testing emplace-struct here

// Test constructor branch
@system unittest
{
    struct S
    {
        double x = 5, y = 6;
        this(int a, int b)
        {
            assert(x == 5 && y == 6);
            x = a;
            y = b;
        }
    }

    auto s1 = new void[S.sizeof];
    auto s2 = S(42, 43);
    assert(*emplace!S(cast(S*) s1.ptr, s2) == s2);
    assert(*emplace!S(cast(S*) s1, 44, 45) == S(44, 45));
}

@system unittest
{
    __conv_EmplaceTest k = void;
    emplace(&k, 5);
    assert(k.i == 5);
}

@system unittest
{
    int var = 6;
    __conv_EmplaceTest k = void;
    emplace(&k, 5, var);
    assert(k.i == 5);
    assert(var == 7);
}

// Test matching fields branch
@system unittest
{
    struct S { uint n; }
    S s;
    emplace!S(&s, 2U);
    assert(s.n == 2);
}

@safe unittest
{
    struct S { int a, b; this(int){} }
    S s;
    static assert(!__traits(compiles, emplace!S(&s, 2, 3)));
}

@system unittest
{
    struct S { int a, b = 7; }
    S s1 = void, s2 = void;

    emplace!S(&s1, 2);
    assert(s1.a == 2 && s1.b == 7);

    emplace!S(&s2, 2, 3);
    assert(s2.a == 2 && s2.b == 3);
}

//opAssign
@system unittest
{
    static struct S
    {
        int i = 5;
        void opAssign(int){assert(0);}
        void opAssign(S){assert(0);}
    }
    S sa1 = void;
    S sa2 = void;
    S sb1 = S(1);
    emplace(&sa1, sb1);
    emplace(&sa2, 2);
    assert(sa1.i == 1);
    assert(sa2.i == 2);
}

//postblit precedence
@system unittest
{
    //Works, but breaks in "-w -O" because of @@@9332@@@.
    //Uncomment test when 9332 is fixed.
    static struct S
    {
        int i;

        this(S other){assert(false);}
        this(int i){this.i = i;}
        this(this){}
    }
    S a = void;
    assert(is(typeof({S b = a;})));    //Postblit
    assert(is(typeof({S b = S(a);}))); //Constructor
    auto b = S(5);
    emplace(&a, b);
    assert(a.i == 5);

    static struct S2
    {
        int* p;
        this(const S2){}
    }
    static assert(!is(immutable S2 : S2));
    S2 s2 = void;
    immutable is2 = (immutable S2).init;
    emplace(&s2, is2);
}

//nested structs and postblit
@system unittest
{
    static struct S
    {
        int* p;
        this(int i){p = [i].ptr;}
        this(this)
        {
            if (p)
                p = [*p].ptr;
        }
    }
    static struct SS
    {
        S s;
        void opAssign(const SS)
        {
            assert(0);
        }
    }
    SS ssa = void;
    SS ssb = SS(S(5));
    emplace(&ssa, ssb);
    assert(*ssa.s.p == 5);
    assert(ssa.s.p != ssb.s.p);
}

//disabled postblit
@system unittest
{
    static struct S1
    {
        int i;
        @disable this(this);
    }
    S1 s1 = void;
    emplace(&s1, 1);
    assert(s1.i == 1);
    static assert(!__traits(compiles, emplace(&s1, S1.init)));

    static struct S2
    {
        int i;
        @disable this(this);
        this(ref S2){}
    }
    S2 s2 = void;
    static assert(!__traits(compiles, emplace(&s2, 1)));
    emplace(&s2, S2.init);

    static struct SS1
    {
        S1 s;
    }
    SS1 ss1 = void;
    emplace(&ss1);
    static assert(!__traits(compiles, emplace(&ss1, SS1.init)));

    static struct SS2
    {
        S2 s;
    }
    SS2 ss2 = void;
    emplace(&ss2);
    static assert(!__traits(compiles, emplace(&ss2, SS2.init)));


    // SS1 sss1 = s1;      //This doesn't compile
    // SS1 sss1 = SS1(s1); //This doesn't compile
    // So emplace shouldn't compile either
    static assert(!__traits(compiles, emplace(&sss1, s1)));
    static assert(!__traits(compiles, emplace(&sss2, s2)));
}

//Imutability
@system unittest
{
    //Castable immutability
    {
        static struct S1
        {
            int i;
        }
        static assert(is( immutable(S1) : S1));
        S1 sa = void;
        auto sb = immutable(S1)(5);
        emplace(&sa, sb);
        assert(sa.i == 5);
    }
    //Un-castable immutability
    {
        static struct S2
        {
            int* p;
        }
        static assert(!is(immutable(S2) : S2));
        S2 sa = void;
        auto sb = immutable(S2)(null);
        assert(!__traits(compiles, emplace(&sa, sb)));
    }
}

@system unittest
{
    static struct S
    {
        immutable int i;
        immutable(int)* j;
    }
    S s = void;
    emplace(&s, 1, null);
    emplace(&s, 2, &s.i);
    assert(s is S(2, &s.i));
}

//Context pointer
@system unittest
{
    int i = 0;
    {
        struct S1
        {
            void foo(){++i;}
        }
        S1 sa = void;
        S1 sb;
        emplace(&sa, sb);
        sa.foo();
        assert(i == 1);
    }
    {
        struct S2
        {
            void foo(){++i;}
            this(this){}
        }
        S2 sa = void;
        S2 sb;
        emplace(&sa, sb);
        sa.foo();
        assert(i == 2);
    }
}

//Alias this
@system unittest
{
    static struct S
    {
        int i;
    }
    //By Ref
    {
        static struct SS1
        {
            int j;
            S s;
            alias s this;
        }
        S s = void;
        SS1 ss = SS1(1, S(2));
        emplace(&s, ss);
        assert(s.i == 2);
    }
    //By Value
    {
        static struct SS2
        {
            int j;
            S s;
            S foo() @property{return s;}
            alias foo this;
        }
        S s = void;
        SS2 ss = SS2(1, S(2));
        emplace(&s, ss);
        assert(s.i == 2);
    }
}
version(unittest)
{
    //Ambiguity
    struct __std_conv_S
    {
        int i;
        this(__std_conv_SS ss)         {assert(0);}
        static opCall(__std_conv_SS ss)
        {
            __std_conv_S s; s.i = ss.j;
            return s;
        }
    }
    struct __std_conv_SS
    {
        int j;
        __std_conv_S s;
        ref __std_conv_S foo() return @property {s.i = j; return s;}
        alias foo this;
    }
    static assert(is(__std_conv_SS : __std_conv_S));
    @system unittest
    {
        __std_conv_S s = void;
        __std_conv_SS ss = __std_conv_SS(1);

        __std_conv_S sTest1 = ss; //this calls "SS alias this" (and not "S.this(SS)")
        emplace(&s, ss); //"alias this" should take precedence in emplace over "opCall"
        assert(s.i == 1);
    }
}

//Nested classes
@system unittest
{
    class A{}
    static struct S
    {
        A a;
    }
    S s1 = void;
    S s2 = S(new A);
    emplace(&s1, s2);
    assert(s1.a is s2.a);
}

//safety & nothrow & CTFE
@system unittest
{
    //emplace should be safe for anything with no elaborate opassign
    static struct S1
    {
        int i;
    }
    static struct S2
    {
        int i;
        this(int j)@safe nothrow{i = j;}
    }

    int i;
    S1 s1 = void;
    S2 s2 = void;

    auto pi = &i;
    auto ps1 = &s1;
    auto ps2 = &s2;

    void foo() @safe nothrow
    {
        emplace(pi);
        emplace(pi, 5);
        emplace(ps1);
        emplace(ps1, 5);
        emplace(ps1, S1.init);
        emplace(ps2);
        emplace(ps2, 5);
        emplace(ps2, S2.init);
    }
    foo();

    T bar(T)() @property
    {
        T t/+ = void+/; //CTFE void illegal
        emplace(&t, 5);
        return t;
    }
    // CTFE
    enum a = bar!int;
    static assert(a == 5);
    enum b = bar!S1;
    static assert(b.i == 5);
    enum c = bar!S2;
    static assert(c.i == 5);
    // runtime
    auto aa = bar!int;
    assert(aa == 5);
    auto bb = bar!S1;
    assert(bb.i == 5);
    auto cc = bar!S2;
    assert(cc.i == 5);
}


@system unittest
{
    struct S
    {
        int[2] get(){return [1, 2];}
        alias get this;
    }
    struct SS
    {
        int[2] ii;
    }
    struct ISS
    {
        int[2] ii;
    }
    S s;
    SS ss = void;
    ISS iss = void;
    emplace(&ss, s);
    emplace(&iss, s);
    assert(ss.ii == [1, 2]);
    assert(iss.ii == [1, 2]);
}

//disable opAssign
@system unittest
{
    static struct S
    {
        @disable void opAssign(S);
    }
    S s;
    emplace(&s, S.init);
}

//opCall
@system unittest
{
    int i;
    //Without constructor
    {
        static struct S1
        {
            int i;
            static S1 opCall(int*){assert(0);}
        }
        S1 s = void;
        static assert(!__traits(compiles, emplace(&s,  1)));
    }
    //With constructor
    {
        static struct S2
        {
            int i = 0;
            static S2 opCall(int*){assert(0);}
            static S2 opCall(int){assert(0);}
            this(int i){this.i = i;}
        }
        S2 s = void;
        emplace(&s,  1);
        assert(s.i == 1);
    }
    //With postblit ambiguity
    {
        static struct S3
        {
            int i = 0;
            static S3 opCall(ref S3){assert(0);}
        }
        S3 s = void;
        emplace(&s, S3.init);
    }
}

@safe unittest //@@@9559@@@
{
    import std.algorithm.iteration : map;
    import std.typecons : Nullable;
    import std.array : array;
    alias I = Nullable!int;
    auto ints = [0, 1, 2].map!(i => i & 1 ? I.init : I(i))();
    auto asArray = array(ints);
}

@system unittest //http://forum.dlang.org/post/nxbdgtdlmwscocbiypjs@forum.dlang.org
{
    import std.array : array;
    import std.datetime : SysTime, UTC;
    import std.math : isNaN;

    static struct A
    {
        double i;
    }

    static struct B
    {
        invariant()
        {
            if (j == 0)
                assert(a.i.isNaN(), "why is 'j' zero?? and i is not NaN?");
            else
                assert(!a.i.isNaN());
        }
        SysTime when; // comment this line avoid the breakage
        int j;
        A a;
    }

    B b1 = B.init;
    assert(&b1); // verify that default eyes invariants are ok;

    auto b2 = B(SysTime(0, UTC()), 1, A(1));
    assert(&b2);
    auto b3 = B(SysTime(0, UTC()), 1, A(1));
    assert(&b3);

    auto arr = [b2, b3];

    assert(arr[0].j == 1);
    assert(arr[1].j == 1);
    auto a2 = arr.array(); // << bang, invariant is raised, also if b2 and b3 are good
}

//static arrays
@system unittest
{
    static struct S
    {
        int[2] ii;
    }
    static struct IS
    {
        immutable int[2] ii;
    }
    int[2] ii;
    S  s   = void;
    IS ims = void;
    ubyte ub = 2;
    emplace(&s, ub);
    emplace(&s, ii);
    emplace(&ims, ub);
    emplace(&ims, ii);
    uint[2] uu;
    static assert(!__traits(compiles, {S ss = S(uu);}));
    static assert(!__traits(compiles, emplace(&s, uu)));
}

@system unittest
{
    int[2]  sii;
    int[2]  sii2;
    uint[2] uii;
    uint[2] uii2;
    emplace(&sii, 1);
    emplace(&sii, 1U);
    emplace(&uii, 1);
    emplace(&uii, 1U);
    emplace(&sii, sii2);
    //emplace(&sii, uii2); //Sorry, this implementation doesn't know how to...
    //emplace(&uii, sii2); //Sorry, this implementation doesn't know how to...
    emplace(&uii, uii2);
    emplace(&sii, sii2[]);
    //emplace(&sii, uii2[]); //Sorry, this implementation doesn't know how to...
    //emplace(&uii, sii2[]); //Sorry, this implementation doesn't know how to...
    emplace(&uii, uii2[]);
}

@system unittest
{
    bool allowDestruction = false;
    struct S
    {
        int i;
        this(this){}
        ~this(){assert(allowDestruction);}
    }
    S s = S(1);
    S[2] ss1 = void;
    S[2] ss2 = void;
    S[2] ss3 = void;
    emplace(&ss1, s);
    emplace(&ss2, ss1);
    emplace(&ss3, ss2[]);
    assert(ss1[1] == s);
    assert(ss2[1] == s);
    assert(ss3[1] == s);
    allowDestruction = true;
}

@system unittest
{
    //Checks postblit, construction, and context pointer
    int count = 0;
    struct S
    {
        this(this)
        {
            ++count;
        }
        ~this()
        {
            --count;
        }
    }

    S s;
    {
        S[4] ss = void;
        emplace(&ss, s);
        assert(count == 4);
    }
    assert(count == 0);
}

@system unittest
{
    struct S
    {
        int i;
    }
    S s;
    S[2][2][2] sss = void;
    emplace(&sss, s);
}

@system unittest //Constness
{
    import std.stdio;

    int a = void;
    emplaceRef!(const int)(a, 5);

    immutable i = 5;
    const(int)* p = void;
    emplaceRef!(const int*)(p, &i);

    struct S
    {
        int* p;
    }
    alias IS = immutable(S);
    S s = void;
    emplaceRef!IS(s, IS());
    S[2] ss = void;
    emplaceRef!(IS[2])(ss, IS());

    IS[2] iss = IS.init;
    emplaceRef!(IS[2])(ss, iss);
    emplaceRef!(IS[2])(ss, iss[]);
}

pure nothrow @safe @nogc unittest
{
    int i;
    emplaceRef(i);
    emplaceRef!int(i);
    emplaceRef(i, 5);
    emplaceRef!int(i, 5);
}

// Test attribute propagation for UDTs
pure nothrow @safe /* @nogc */ unittest
{
    static struct Safe
    {
        this(this) pure nothrow @safe @nogc {}
    }

    Safe safe = void;
    emplaceRef(safe, Safe());

    Safe[1] safeArr = [Safe()];
    Safe[1] uninitializedSafeArr = void;
    emplaceRef(uninitializedSafeArr, safe);
    emplaceRef(uninitializedSafeArr, safeArr);

    static struct Unsafe
    {
        this(this) @system {}
    }

    Unsafe unsafe = void;
    static assert(!__traits(compiles, emplaceRef(unsafe, Unsafe())));

    Unsafe[1] unsafeArr = [Unsafe()];
    Unsafe[1] uninitializedUnsafeArr = void;
    static assert(!__traits(compiles, emplaceRef(uninitializedUnsafeArr, unsafe)));
    static assert(!__traits(compiles, emplaceRef(uninitializedUnsafeArr, unsafeArr)));
}

@system unittest
{
    // Issue 15313
    static struct Node
    {
        int payload;
        Node* next;
        uint refs;
    }

    import core.stdc.stdlib : malloc;
    void[] buf = malloc(Node.sizeof)[0 .. Node.sizeof];

    import std.conv : emplace;
    const Node* n = emplace!(const Node)(buf, 42, null, 10);
    assert(n.payload == 42);
    assert(n.next == null);
    assert(n.refs == 10);
}

@system unittest
{
    int var = 6;
    auto k = emplace!__conv_EmplaceTest(new void[__conv_EmplaceTest.sizeof], 5, var);
    assert(k.i == 5);
    assert(var == 7);
}

@system unittest
{
    class A
    {
        int x = 5;
        int y = 42;
        this(int z)
        {
            assert(x == 5 && y == 42);
            x = y = z;
        }
    }
    void[] buf;

    static align(A.alignof) byte[__traits(classInstanceSize, A)] sbuf;
    buf = sbuf[];
    auto a = emplace!A(buf, 55);
    assert(a.x == 55 && a.y == 55);

    // emplace in bigger buffer
    buf = new byte[](__traits(classInstanceSize, A) + 10);
    a = emplace!A(buf, 55);
    assert(a.x == 55 && a.y == 55);

    // need ctor args
    static assert(!is(typeof(emplace!A(buf))));
}
// Bulk of emplace unittests ends here

@safe unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;
    import std.algorithm.iteration : map;
    // Check fix for http://d.puremagic.com/issues/show_bug.cgi?id=2971
    assert(equal(map!(to!int)(["42", "34", "345"]), [42, 34, 345]));
}

// Undocumented for the time being
void toTextRange(T, W)(T value, W writer)
if (isIntegral!T && isOutputRange!(W, char))
{
    char[value.sizeof * 4] buffer = void;
    uint i = cast(uint) (buffer.length - 1);

    bool negative = value < 0;
    Unqual!(Unsigned!T) v = negative ? -value : value;

    while (v >= 10)
    {
        auto c = cast(uint) (v % 10);
        v /= 10;
        buffer[i--] = cast(char) (c + '0');
    }

    buffer[i] = cast(char) (v + '0'); //hexDigits[cast(uint) v];
    if (negative)
        buffer[--i] = '-';
    put(writer, buffer[i .. $]);
}

@safe unittest
{
    import std.array : appender;
    auto result = appender!(char[])();
    toTextRange(-1, result);
    assert(result.data == "-1");
}


/**
    Returns the corresponding _unsigned value for $(D x) (e.g. if $(D x) has type
    $(D int), it returns $(D cast(uint) x)). The advantage compared to the cast
    is that you do not need to rewrite the cast if $(D x) later changes type
    (e.g from $(D int) to $(D long)).

    Note that the result is always mutable even if the original type was const
    or immutable. In order to retain the constness, use $(REF Unsigned, std,traits).
 */
auto unsigned(T)(T x)
if (isIntegral!T)
{
    return cast(Unqual!(Unsigned!T))x;
}

///
@safe unittest
{
    import std.traits : Unsigned;
    immutable int s = 42;
    auto u1 = unsigned(s); //not qualified
    static assert(is(typeof(u1) == uint));
    Unsigned!(typeof(s)) u2 = unsigned(s); //same qualification
    static assert(is(typeof(u2) == immutable uint));
    immutable u3 = unsigned(s); //explicitly qualified
}

@safe unittest
{
    foreach (T; AliasSeq!(byte, ubyte))
    {
        static assert(is(typeof(unsigned(cast(T) 1)) == ubyte));
        static assert(is(typeof(unsigned(cast(const T) 1)) == ubyte));
        static assert(is(typeof(unsigned(cast(immutable T) 1)) == ubyte));
    }

    foreach (T; AliasSeq!(short, ushort))
    {
        static assert(is(typeof(unsigned(cast(T) 1)) == ushort));
        static assert(is(typeof(unsigned(cast(const T) 1)) == ushort));
        static assert(is(typeof(unsigned(cast(immutable T) 1)) == ushort));
    }

    foreach (T; AliasSeq!(int, uint))
    {
        static assert(is(typeof(unsigned(cast(T) 1)) == uint));
        static assert(is(typeof(unsigned(cast(const T) 1)) == uint));
        static assert(is(typeof(unsigned(cast(immutable T) 1)) == uint));
    }

    foreach (T; AliasSeq!(long, ulong))
    {
        static assert(is(typeof(unsigned(cast(T) 1)) == ulong));
        static assert(is(typeof(unsigned(cast(const T) 1)) == ulong));
        static assert(is(typeof(unsigned(cast(immutable T) 1)) == ulong));
    }
}

auto unsigned(T)(T x)
if (isSomeChar!T)
{
    // All characters are unsigned
    static assert(T.min == 0);
    return cast(Unqual!T) x;
}

@safe unittest
{
    foreach (T; AliasSeq!(char, wchar, dchar))
    {
        static assert(is(typeof(unsigned(cast(T)'A')) == T));
        static assert(is(typeof(unsigned(cast(const T)'A')) == T));
        static assert(is(typeof(unsigned(cast(immutable T)'A')) == T));
    }
}


/**
    Returns the corresponding _signed value for $(D x) (e.g. if $(D x) has type
    $(D uint), it returns $(D cast(int) x)). The advantage compared to the cast
    is that you do not need to rewrite the cast if $(D x) later changes type
    (e.g from $(D uint) to $(D ulong)).

    Note that the result is always mutable even if the original type was const
    or immutable. In order to retain the constness, use $(REF Signed, std,traits).
 */
auto signed(T)(T x)
if (isIntegral!T)
{
    return cast(Unqual!(Signed!T))x;
}

///
@safe unittest
{
    import std.traits : Signed;

    immutable uint u = 42;
    auto s1 = signed(u); //not qualified
    static assert(is(typeof(s1) == int));
    Signed!(typeof(u)) s2 = signed(u); //same qualification
    static assert(is(typeof(s2) == immutable int));
    immutable s3 = signed(u); //explicitly qualified
}

@system unittest
{
    foreach (T; AliasSeq!(byte, ubyte))
    {
        static assert(is(typeof(signed(cast(T) 1)) == byte));
        static assert(is(typeof(signed(cast(const T) 1)) == byte));
        static assert(is(typeof(signed(cast(immutable T) 1)) == byte));
    }

    foreach (T; AliasSeq!(short, ushort))
    {
        static assert(is(typeof(signed(cast(T) 1)) == short));
        static assert(is(typeof(signed(cast(const T) 1)) == short));
        static assert(is(typeof(signed(cast(immutable T) 1)) == short));
    }

    foreach (T; AliasSeq!(int, uint))
    {
        static assert(is(typeof(signed(cast(T) 1)) == int));
        static assert(is(typeof(signed(cast(const T) 1)) == int));
        static assert(is(typeof(signed(cast(immutable T) 1)) == int));
    }

    foreach (T; AliasSeq!(long, ulong))
    {
        static assert(is(typeof(signed(cast(T) 1)) == long));
        static assert(is(typeof(signed(cast(const T) 1)) == long));
        static assert(is(typeof(signed(cast(immutable T) 1)) == long));
    }
}

@safe unittest
{
    // issue 10874
    enum Test { a = 0 }
    ulong l = 0;
    auto t = l.to!Test;
}

/**
    A wrapper on top of the built-in cast operator that allows one to restrict
    casting of the original type of the value.

    A common issue with using a raw cast is that it may silently continue to
    compile even if the value's type has changed during refactoring,
    which breaks the initial assumption about the cast.

    Params:
        From  = The type to cast from. The programmer must ensure it is legal
                to make this cast.
 */
template castFrom(From)
{
    /**
        Params:
            To    = The type _to cast _to.
            value = The value _to cast. It must be of type $(D From),
                    otherwise a compile-time error is emitted.

        Returns:
            the value after the cast, returned by reference if possible.
     */
    auto ref to(To, T)(auto ref T value) @system
    {
        static assert(
            is(From == T),
            "the value to cast is not of specified type '" ~ From.stringof ~
                 "', it is of type '" ~ T.stringof ~ "'"
        );

        static assert(
            is(typeof(cast(To) value)),
            "can't cast from '" ~ From.stringof ~ "' to '" ~ To.stringof ~ "'"
        );

        return cast(To) value;
    }
}

///
@system unittest
{
    // Regular cast, which has been verified to be legal by the programmer:
    {
        long x;
        auto y = cast(int) x;
    }

    // However this will still compile if 'x' is changed to be a pointer:
    {
        long* x;
        auto y = cast(int) x;
    }

    // castFrom provides a more reliable alternative to casting:
    {
        long x;
        auto y = castFrom!long.to!int(x);
    }

    // Changing the type of 'x' will now issue a compiler error,
    // allowing bad casts to be caught before it's too late:
    {
        long* x;
        static assert(
            !__traits(compiles, castFrom!long.to!int(x))
        );

        // if cast is still needed, must be changed to:
        auto y = castFrom!(long*).to!int(x);
    }
}

// https://issues.dlang.org/show_bug.cgi?id=16667
@system unittest
{
    ubyte[] a = ['a', 'b', 'c'];
    assert(castFrom!(ubyte[]).to!(string)(a) == "abc");
}

/**
Check the correctness of a string for $(D hexString).
The result is true if and only if the input string is composed of whitespace
characters (\f\n\r\t\v lineSep paraSep nelSep) and
an even number of hexadecimal digits (regardless of the case).
*/
@safe pure @nogc
private bool isHexLiteral(String)(scope const String hexData)
{
    import std.ascii : isHexDigit;
    import std.uni : lineSep, paraSep, nelSep;
    size_t i;
    foreach (const dchar c; hexData)
    {
        switch (c)
        {
            case ' ':
            case '\t':
            case '\v':
            case '\f':
            case '\r':
            case '\n':
            case lineSep:
            case paraSep:
            case nelSep:
                continue;

            default:
                break;
        }
        if (c.isHexDigit)
            ++i;
        else
            return false;
    }
    return !(i & 1);
}

@safe unittest
{
    // test all the hex digits
    static assert( ("0123456789abcdefABCDEF").isHexLiteral);
    // empty or white strings are not valid
    static assert( "\r\n\t".isHexLiteral);
    // but are accepted if the count of hex digits is even
    static assert( "A\r\n\tB".isHexLiteral);
}

@safe unittest
{
    import std.ascii;
    // empty/whites
    static assert( "".isHexLiteral);
    static assert( " \r".isHexLiteral);
    static assert( whitespace.isHexLiteral);
    static assert( ""w.isHexLiteral);
    static assert( " \r"w.isHexLiteral);
    static assert( ""d.isHexLiteral);
    static assert( " \r"d.isHexLiteral);
    static assert( "\u2028\u2029\u0085"d.isHexLiteral);
    // odd x strings
    static assert( !("5" ~ whitespace).isHexLiteral);
    static assert( !"123".isHexLiteral);
    static assert( !"1A3".isHexLiteral);
    static assert( !"1 23".isHexLiteral);
    static assert( !"\r\n\tC".isHexLiteral);
    static assert( !"123"w.isHexLiteral);
    static assert( !"1A3"w.isHexLiteral);
    static assert( !"1 23"w.isHexLiteral);
    static assert( !"\r\n\tC"w.isHexLiteral);
    static assert( !"123"d.isHexLiteral);
    static assert( !"1A3"d.isHexLiteral);
    static assert( !"1 23"d.isHexLiteral);
    static assert( !"\r\n\tC"d.isHexLiteral);
    // even x strings with invalid charset
    static assert( !"12gG".isHexLiteral);
    static assert( !"2A  3q".isHexLiteral);
    static assert( !"12gG"w.isHexLiteral);
    static assert( !"2A  3q"w.isHexLiteral);
    static assert( !"12gG"d.isHexLiteral);
    static assert( !"2A  3q"d.isHexLiteral);
    // valid x strings
    static assert( ("5A" ~ whitespace).isHexLiteral);
    static assert( ("5A 01A C FF de 1b").isHexLiteral);
    static assert( ("0123456789abcdefABCDEF").isHexLiteral);
    static assert( (" 012 34 5 6789 abcd ef\rAB\nCDEF").isHexLiteral);
    static assert( ("5A 01A C FF de 1b"w).isHexLiteral);
    static assert( ("0123456789abcdefABCDEF"w).isHexLiteral);
    static assert( (" 012 34 5 6789 abcd ef\rAB\nCDEF"w).isHexLiteral);
    static assert( ("5A 01A C FF de 1b"d).isHexLiteral);
    static assert( ("0123456789abcdefABCDEF"d).isHexLiteral);
    static assert( (" 012 34 5 6789 abcd ef\rAB\nCDEF"d).isHexLiteral);
    // library version allows what's pointed by issue 10454
    static assert( ("FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF").isHexLiteral);
}

/**
Converts a hex literal to a string at compile time.

Takes a string made of hexadecimal digits and returns
the matching string by converting each pair of digits to a character.
The input string can also include white characters, which can be used
to keep the literal string readable in the source code.

The function is intended to replace the hexadecimal literal strings
starting with $(D 'x'), which could be removed to simplify the core language.

Params:
    hexData = string to be converted.

Returns:
    a $(D string), a $(D wstring) or a $(D dstring), according to the type of hexData.
 */
template hexString(string hexData)
if (hexData.isHexLiteral)
{
    immutable hexString = hexStrImpl(hexData);
}

/// ditto
template hexString(wstring hexData)
if (hexData.isHexLiteral)
{
    immutable hexString = hexStrImpl(hexData);
}

/// ditto
template hexString(dstring hexData)
if (hexData.isHexLiteral)
{
    immutable hexString = hexStrImpl(hexData);
}

///
@safe unittest
{
    // conversion at compile time
    auto string1 = hexString!"304A314B";
    assert(string1 == "0J1K");
    auto string2 = hexString!"304A314B"w;
    assert(string2 == "0J1K"w);
    auto string3 = hexString!"304A314B"d;
    assert(string3 == "0J1K"d);
}

/*
    Takes a hexadecimal string literal and returns its representation.
    hexData is granted to be a valid string by the caller.
    C is granted to be a valid char type by the caller.
*/
@safe nothrow pure
private auto hexStrImpl(String)(scope String hexData)
{
    import std.ascii : isHexDigit;
    alias C = Unqual!(ElementEncodingType!String);
    C[] result;
    result.length = hexData.length / 2;
    size_t cnt;
    ubyte v;
    foreach (c; hexData)
    {
        if (c.isHexDigit)
        {
            ubyte x;
            if (c >= '0' && c <= '9')
                x = cast(ubyte)(c - '0');
            else if (c >= 'a' && c <= 'f')
                x = cast(ubyte)(c - ('a' - 10));
            else if (c >= 'A' && c <= 'F')
                x = cast(ubyte)(c - ('A' - 10));
            if (cnt & 1)
            {
                v = cast(ubyte)((v << 4) | x);
                result[cnt / 2] = v;
            }
            else
                v = x;
            ++cnt;
        }
    }
    result.length = cnt / 2;
    return result;
}

@safe unittest
{
    // compile time
    assert(hexString!"46 47 48 49 4A 4B" == "FGHIJK");
    assert(hexString!"30\r\n\t\f\v31 32 33 32 31 30" == "0123210");
    assert(hexString!"ab cd" == hexString!"ABCD");
}


/**
 * Convert integer to a range of characters.
 * Intended to be lightweight and fast.
 *
 * Params:
 *      radix = 2, 8, 10, 16
 *      Char = character type for output
 *      letterCase = lower for deadbeef, upper for DEADBEEF
 *      value = integer to convert. Can be uint or ulong. If radix is 10, can also be
 *              int or long.
 * Returns:
 *      Random access range with slicing and everything
 */

auto toChars(ubyte radix = 10, Char = char, LetterCase letterCase = LetterCase.lower, T)(T value)
    pure nothrow @nogc @safe
if ((radix == 2 || radix == 8 || radix == 10 || radix == 16) &&
    (is(Unqual!T == uint) || is(Unqual!T == ulong) ||
    radix == 10 && (is(Unqual!T == int) || is(Unqual!T == long))))
{
    alias UT = Unqual!T;

    static if (radix == 10)
    {
        /* uint.max  is 42_9496_7295
         *  int.max  is 21_4748_3647
         * ulong.max is 1844_6744_0737_0955_1615
         *  long.max is  922_3372_0368_5477_5807
         */
        static struct Result
        {
            void initialize(UT value)
            {
                bool neg = false;
                if (value < 10)
                {
                    if (value >= 0)
                    {
                        lwr = 0;
                        upr = 1;
                        buf[0] = cast(char)(cast(uint) value + '0');
                        return;
                    }
                    value = -value;
                    neg = true;
                }
                auto i = cast(uint) buf.length - 1;
                while (cast(Unsigned!UT) value >= 10)
                {
                    buf[i] = cast(ubyte)('0' + cast(Unsigned!UT) value % 10);
                    value = unsigned(value) / 10;
                    --i;
                }
                buf[i] = cast(char)(cast(uint) value + '0');
                if (neg)
                {
                    buf[i - 1] = '-';
                    --i;
                }
                lwr = i;
                upr = cast(uint) buf.length;
            }

            @property size_t length() { return upr - lwr; }

            alias opDollar = length;

            @property bool empty() { return upr == lwr; }

            @property Char front() { return buf[lwr]; }

            void popFront() { ++lwr; }

            @property Char back() { return buf[upr - 1]; }

            void popBack() { --upr; }

            @property Result save() { return this; }

            Char opIndex(size_t i) { return buf[lwr + i]; }

            Result opSlice(size_t lwr, size_t upr)
            {
                Result result = void;
                result.buf = buf;
                result.lwr = cast(uint)(this.lwr + lwr);
                result.upr = cast(uint)(this.lwr + upr);
                return result;
            }

          private:
            uint lwr = void, upr = void;
            char[(UT.sizeof == 4) ? 10 + isSigned!T : 20] buf = void;
        }

        Result result = void;
        result.initialize(value);
        return result;
    }
    else
    {
        static if (radix == 2)
            enum SHIFT = 1;
        else static if (radix == 8)
            enum SHIFT = 3;
        else static if (radix == 16)
            enum SHIFT = 4;
        else
            static assert(0);
        static struct Result
        {
            this(UT value)
            {
                this.value = value;

                ubyte len = 1;
                while (value >>>= SHIFT)
                   ++len;
                this.len = len;
            }

            @property size_t length() { return len; }

            @property bool empty() { return len == 0; }

            @property Char front() { return opIndex(0); }

            void popFront() { --len; }

            @property Char back() { return opIndex(len - 1); }

            void popBack()
            {
                value >>>= SHIFT;
                --len;
            }

            @property Result save() { return this; }

            Char opIndex(size_t i)
            {
                Char c = (value >>> ((len - i - 1) * SHIFT)) & ((1 << SHIFT) - 1);
                return cast(Char)((radix < 10 || c < 10) ? c + '0'
                                                         : (letterCase == LetterCase.upper ? c + 'A' - 10
                                                                                           : c + 'a' - 10));
            }

            Result opSlice(size_t lwr, size_t upr)
            {
                Result result = void;
                result.value = value >>> ((len - upr) * SHIFT);
                result.len = cast(ubyte)(upr - lwr);
                return result;
            }

          private:
            UT value;
            ubyte len;
        }

        return Result(value);
    }
}


@safe unittest
{
    import std.array;
    import std.range;

    {
        assert(toChars!2(0u).array == "0");
        assert(toChars!2(0Lu).array == "0");
        assert(toChars!2(1u).array == "1");
        assert(toChars!2(1Lu).array == "1");

        auto r = toChars!2(2u);
        assert(r.length == 2);
        assert(r[0] == '1');
        assert(r[1 .. 2].array == "0");
        auto s = r.save;
        assert(r.array == "10");
        assert(s.retro.array == "01");
    }
    {
        assert(toChars!8(0u).array == "0");
        assert(toChars!8(0Lu).array == "0");
        assert(toChars!8(1u).array == "1");
        assert(toChars!8(1234567Lu).array == "4553207");

        auto r = toChars!8(8u);
        assert(r.length == 2);
        assert(r[0] == '1');
        assert(r[1 .. 2].array == "0");
        auto s = r.save;
        assert(r.array == "10");
        assert(s.retro.array == "01");
    }
    {
        assert(toChars!10(0u).array == "0");
        assert(toChars!10(0Lu).array == "0");
        assert(toChars!10(1u).array == "1");
        assert(toChars!10(1234567Lu).array == "1234567");
        assert(toChars!10(uint.max).array == "4294967295");
        assert(toChars!10(ulong.max).array == "18446744073709551615");

        auto r = toChars(10u);
        assert(r.length == 2);
        assert(r[0] == '1');
        assert(r[1 .. 2].array == "0");
        auto s = r.save;
        assert(r.array == "10");
        assert(s.retro.array == "01");
    }
    {
        assert(toChars!10(0).array == "0");
        assert(toChars!10(0L).array == "0");
        assert(toChars!10(1).array == "1");
        assert(toChars!10(1234567L).array == "1234567");
        assert(toChars!10(int.max).array == "2147483647");
        assert(toChars!10(long.max).array == "9223372036854775807");
        assert(toChars!10(-int.max).array == "-2147483647");
        assert(toChars!10(-long.max).array == "-9223372036854775807");
        assert(toChars!10(int.min).array == "-2147483648");
        assert(toChars!10(long.min).array == "-9223372036854775808");

        auto r = toChars!10(10);
        assert(r.length == 2);
        assert(r[0] == '1');
        assert(r[1 .. 2].array == "0");
        auto s = r.save;
        assert(r.array == "10");
        assert(s.retro.array == "01");
    }
    {
        assert(toChars!(16)(0u).array == "0");
        assert(toChars!(16)(0Lu).array == "0");
        assert(toChars!(16)(10u).array == "a");
        assert(toChars!(16, char, LetterCase.upper)(0x12AF34567Lu).array == "12AF34567");

        auto r = toChars!(16)(16u);
        assert(r.length == 2);
        assert(r[0] == '1');
        assert(r[1 .. 2].array == "0");
        auto s = r.save;
        assert(r.array == "10");
        assert(s.retro.array == "01");
    }
}

@safe unittest // opSlice (issue 16192)
{
    import std.meta : AliasSeq;

    static struct Test { ubyte radix; uint number; }

    alias tests = AliasSeq!(
        Test(2, 0b1_0110_0111u),
        Test(2, 0b10_1100_1110u),
        Test(8, octal!123456701u),
        Test(8, octal!1234567012u),
        Test(10, 123456789u),
        Test(10, 1234567890u),
        Test(16, 0x789ABCDu),
        Test(16, 0x789ABCDEu),
    );

    foreach (test; tests)
    {
        enum ubyte radix = test.radix;
        auto original = toChars!radix(test.number);

        // opSlice vs popFront
        auto r = original.save;
        size_t i = 0;
        for (; !r.empty; r.popFront(), ++i)
        {
            assert(original[i .. original.length].tupleof == r.tupleof);
                // tupleof is used to work around issue 16216.
        }

        // opSlice vs popBack
        r = original.save;
        i = 0;
        for (; !r.empty; r.popBack(), ++i)
        {
            assert(original[0 .. original.length - i].tupleof == r.tupleof);
        }

        // opSlice vs both popFront and popBack
        r = original.save;
        i = 0;
        for (; r.length >= 2; r.popFront(), r.popBack(), ++i)
        {
            assert(original[i .. original.length - i].tupleof == r.tupleof);
        }
    }
}
